With the death of Iran’s Supreme Leader Ayatollah Ali Khamenei in joint US–Israeli airstrikes in Tehran, sections of Iranian state television and several officials have described him as having attained “martyrdom.” For much of the world, martyrdom generally denotes the act of giving up one’s life for a belief or cause, often religious. In Iran, however, the idea carries far deeper historical and cultural resonance. Rooted in Shiism, the official religion of the Islamic Republic, martyrdom is not merely a theological concept but a powerful strand in the country’s collective memory and political imagination.

The concept of martyrdom in Iran has gained renewed resonance in key moments of the country’s history, notably during the Iran-Iraq War of 1980–88, when sacrifices on the battlefield were woven into national identity, and more recently amid the 2022 nationwide protests sparked by the death of Mahsa Amini, where slain demonstrators came to symbolize the cry encapsulated in the slogan “Women, Life, Freedom.”

Martyrdom in Shia history and culture

The Shia branch of the Islamic community trace their genesis to the idea that the political and religious authority of Prophet Muhammad was to pass on to his biological descendants after his death. However, at the death of the Prophet in 632 CE a disagreement arose among his followers who split into two groups. One was led by Abu Bakr, a companion of the Prophet, and the other followed Ali, Muhammad’s cousin and son-in-law.

Eventually, Abu Bakr became the first Caliph of Islam, and his followers came to be known as Sunni Muslims. The followers of Ali, on the other hand, were known as Shias.

In the year 656 CE, supporters of Ali, who were strongly of the opinion that Islam ought to be led by a descendant of Muhammad, rose up against Uthman ibn Affan, the descendant of Abu Bakr who was then the third Caliph. Uthman was assassinated and replaced by Ali as the fourth Caliph.

Ali’s reign, however, was marred by several rounds of violent struggles between his supporters and the Sunnis. When Ali was murdered in the year 661 CE, he came to be regarded as the first martyr of the Shia faith. His struggle was continued by his two sons, Hasan ibn Ali and Husayn ibn Ali. In 680 CE, Husayn along with his small band of followers were killed at the Battle of Karbala after he refused to pledge allegiance to Yazid I, who was then the Caliph. Yazid’s reign was considered unjust and veering away from the basic tenets of Islam. The massacre, which happened on the 10th day of the month of Muharram, elevated the martyrdom of Husayn to near mythical levels.

In Shia belief, Husayn’s death was not just a defeat but a conscious moral stand against tyranny. His sacrifice is seen as testimony to faith, justice, and dignity. Husayn’s death is commemorated annually during Ashura, the 10th day of Muharram and is marked by mourning rituals, processions and passion plays based on his martyrdom.

The public demonstrations commemorating the martyrdom of Husayn have been a crucial part of Iranian public life for centuries. The British explorer Thomas Herbert, who travelled through Persia in the 17th century had described the events during Muharram in his writings: “I haue seene them nine seuer-all days in great multitudes, in the streets all together crying out Hussan Hussan.”

Martyrdom in Iranian political history

The collective memory of the events that led to the death of Husayn continues to play a significant role in Iran’s cultural, religious and political fabric. Political scientist Osana Didyk in a research paper published in 2023, notes that memory of the Battle of Karbala influences contemporary interpretations of martyrdom and fosters a sense of resistance against oppression and tyranny.

During the Islamic Revolution of 1978-79, for instance, the martyrdom of Husayn served as a “potent and mobilising force”, writes Didyk. It eventually led to the demise of the Pahlavi regime and the birth of the Islamic Republic. Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeinei, the leader of the Islamic Revolution and the architect of the Islamic Republic of Iran played a pivotal role in shaping the concept of shahadat (martyrdom) in Iran. He regarded it to be a central and honourable facet of the Islamic faith. His advocacy for shahadat had played a pivotal role in stirring the masses during the Iran-Iraq War.

Consequently, martyrdom has become a subject of fervent public discussions, profoundly shaping contemporary Iranian life.