MERS-CoV infection in humans is associated with a pro-inflammatory Th1 and Th17 cytokine profile

“…Virus infection seems to excessively activate monocytes and macrophages leading to the development of a cytokine storm and subsequently to the appearance of acute respiratory distress syndrome [ 41 ]. Our findings are consistent with SARS and Middle East Respiratory Syndrome as the presence of “cytokine storm” may have a key role in the pathogenesis of SARS-CoV-2 [ 42 , 43 ]. Infected SARS-CoV-2 cells are reprogrammed for virus particle production and die after their lytic release, potentially due to the cytosolic components release by removing cells from the system that induce the massive inflammatory reaction leading to an “over-reaction“of the immune system „cytokine storm“[ 44 ].…”

“…Most patients' lung CT showed a bilateral distribution of ground glass shadow, patchy shadow, and lobular septum thickening. Patients may show consolidation shadows and nodular shadows; a few patients have no obvious abnormalities in lung CT, similar to previous studies (Wang et al, 2020;Wong et al, 2004;Metlay et al, 2019;Mahallawi et al, 2018).…”

“…Several groups reported that severe COVID-19 is characterized by high levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-6 and IL-1β 7,19,[31][32][33][34] , while IFN responses are blunted, as shown by whole blood transcriptomics 20,35 and plasma profiling 36 . Our series confirmed a positive correlation between the amount of IFN-γ and IL-17A, associated to the severity of disease as previously reported for MERS-CoV, SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2 37,38 , despite we could not test the specific effect of each single cytokine inhibition due to the heterogeneity and small numbers of our series of not vaccinated patients. However, breakthrough infections were mild and not associated to increased amount of C-RP, cytokines or inflamed monocytes expansion.…”