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Bangladesh genocide
Part of the Bangladesh Liberation War
👁 Image
Human Remains from the 1971 Genocide. Liberation War Museum Dhaka
Nativenameএকাত্তরের গণহত্যা
বাঙালি গণহত্যা
LocationEast Pakistan (now Bangladesh)
Date25 March 1971 – 16 December 1971
(8months, 2weeks and 6days)
TargetBengalis[1]
Attack type
Ethnic cleansing through mass murder and genocidal rape
Deaths300,000–3,000,000
Victims
  • 200,000–400,000
  • women raped
  • 30,000,000 displaced
Perpetrator👁 Image
Pakistan
Assailants
MotiveAnti-Bengali racism, Anti-Hindu sentiment

The Bangladesh genocide[a] was when Bengalis in East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) were subjected to mass killing and driven from their land because of their ethnicity. It took place during the Bangladesh Liberation War. The Pakistan Army and the Razakar militia did it.[2]

It began on 25 March 1971. West Pakistan (now Pakistan) started a military operation called Operation Searchlight. Its goal was to use force to control the Bengali people in East Pakistan. Bengalis made up most of the population there, and they had been asking to be free from Pakistan. Yahya Khan, who was president of Pakistan at that time, wanted to stop the Bengalis from seeking freedom. He approved a large military action. In the nine months of war that followed, Pakistani soldiers and local pro-Pakistan militias carried out mass killing of between 300,000 and 3,000,000 Bengalis. They also raped between 200,000 and 400,000 Bengali women. These mass killings and rapes were done as part of a planned campaign of mass murder and genocidal rape.[3]

West Pakistanis were told by the news that the military operation was carried out because of a "rebellion by the East Pakistanis." Many things that happened at that time were kept hidden from them. These included the rapes and the ethnic cleansing of East Pakistanis by the Pakistani military. Most of the victims were Bengali Muslims. However, Hindus were targeted especially.[4]

The International Commission of Jurists, based in Geneva, looked into the genocide. They found that Pakistan's campaign also tried to kill or drive away a large part of the country's Hindu population.[5]

The West Pakistani government made laws that were not fair to East Pakistan.[6] The government claimed Hindus were behind the revolt of the Mukti Bahini (Bengali resistance fighters). It also said that fixing the "Hindu problem" there would end the conflict. So Khan's government and Pakistan's leaders saw the crackdown as a planned action they needed to take.[7] The campaign was backed by words that called for genocide. Pakistani men believed that killing Hindus was needed to fix the country's problems.[8] In the countryside, Pakistan Army moved through villages and specifically asked for places where Hindus lived before burning them down.[9]

To find out who was Hindu, they checked if a man was circumcised. They also made people say Muslim prayers. Those who could not were identified as Hindu.[10] Because of this, about eight million people left East Pakistan and went to India. Most of them were Hindus. Around 80 to 90 out of every 100 were Hindu.[11] Both Muslim and Hindu women were targeted for rape.[12] West Pakistani men wanted to "purify the nation", which they believed was "corrupted by Hindus". They thought sacrificing Hindu women was needed, so they viewed Bengali women as Hindu or Hindu-like.[8]

What Pakistan did during the Bangladesh Liberation War made India send its military to help the Mukti Bahini. This started the Indo-Pakistani War. That war began on 3 December 1971. The war and the genocide ended on 16 December 1971. On that day, the joint forces of Bangladesh and India accepted the Pakistani Instrument of Surrender. Because of the war, about 10 million East Bengali refugees fled to India. East Pakistan had 70 million people in total. Out of these, as many as 30 million were displaced but stayed inside the country.

Background

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Female students from Dacca University marching on Language Movement Day, 21 February 1953.

West Pakistan and East Pakistan

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In 1947, the United Kingdom split British India into two countries: India and Pakistan. The idea was that Hindus would live in India and Muslims would live in Pakistan. But it was not so simple. Pakistan had two parts: East Pakistan and West Pakistan. They were about 1,600 kilometres (1,000mi) apart, with India in between.[13] The two parts were separated not only by distance, but also by culture. Leaders in West Pakistan thought the Bengali Muslims in the East were "too Bengali." They also thought their way of being Muslim was "inferior and impure." Because of this, they believed the Bengalis were not truly reliable as fellow Muslims. The leaders of Pakistan also saw Hindu influences in Bengali language and culture. So they tried many times to lessen or get rid of those influences.[14][15]

Politicians in West Pakistan made a plan. They wanted to force Bengalis to change their culture and religion.[16] The ruling class in West Pakistan had power over East Pakistan. They looked down on Bengali Muslims. Colonialism played a role in this. They also believed light skin was better. They thought East Pakistanis had darker skin than West Pakistanis.[17]

There were fewer West Pakistanis than East Pakistanis, but West Pakistanis controlled most of the government.[14] East Pakistan had about 75 million people. West Pakistan had about 55 million people, and most people there spoke Punjabi.[18] Most people in the East were Muslim, but there were also large numbers of Hindus, Buddhists, and Christians.

Unfair laws and rules targeting Bengalis

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In 1948, Pakistan's founding leader, Muhammad Ali Jinnah, said Urdu would be the national language.[19] At that time, only 4 out of every 100 people in Pakistan spoke Urdu.[20] Jinnah said the people of East Bengal could pick their own language for their province. He called anyone who did not want Urdu as the national language a communist, a traitor, and an enemy of the state.[21][22]

For a long time, the government did not want to make Bengali the second national language. This made people in East Pakistan angry and started the Bengali language movement. People began to support a new party called the Awami League, which was started in the East to challenge the ruling Muslim League.[23]

In 1952, people held a protest in Dhaka, the capital of East Pakistan. The government used force to stop it, and several protesters were killed. Bengali nationalists called them martyrs, and the violence made some people call for independence.[24]

The Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 made people even angrier. The military did not send extra troops to defend East Pakistan.[25] Bengalis worried that their land was not protected if India attacked.[26][27] They also believed that Ayub Khan, the President of Pakistan, was willing to give up the East if it meant he could get Kashmir.[28]

The Bhola cyclone struck on 12 November 1970. The government was slow to help the people. Many people think this slow response played a part in how people voted in the general election held in December 1970.[29]

The Awami League was based in East Pakistan and led by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman. It won a national majority in the first democratic election since Pakistan was created, sweeping all the seats in East Pakistan. But the West Pakistani establishment stopped them from forming a government.[30] President Yahya Khan, encouraged by Zulfikar Ali Bhutto,[31] banned the Awami League and declared martial law.[32] The Pakistani Army demolished Ramna Kali Mandir temple and killed 85 Hindus.[33] On 22 February 1971, General Yahya Khan said "Kill three million of them, and the rest will eat out of our hands."[34][35][36]

Bengali independence movement

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Some Bengalis wanted Pakistan to stay united and did not want to break away.[37] According to Sarmila Bose, an Indian academic, the Bengalis that supported unified Pakistan were a large minority. The Islamic parties were among them. Also, many people voted for the Awami League wanted more self-rule for the province, but they may not have wanted to leave Pakistan.[38]

Also, some Bengali officers and soldiers stayed loyal to the Pakistani Army. India took them as prisoners of war, together with other soldiers from West Pakistan.[39] So, according to Sarmila Bose, some Bengalis were on the Pakistani government's side. These Bengalis killed and hurt the fighters who wanted freedom.[40]

Sydney Schanberg reported that in June 1971, the Pakistani Army made created groups made up of local people. Only a few of the recruits were Bengali, while most were Biharis or Urdu speakers. These groups knew the local land well, and they helped the Pakistani Army do the genocide.[41]

Gary J. Bass is an American writer. He believes that the breakup of Pakistan did not have to happen. He says that for Bengalis, the idea of a united Pakistan ended on 25 March 1971. That was when the military operations started.[42]

According to John H. Gill, there was a deep split during the war between Bengalis who supported Pakistan and Bengalis who wanted freedom. That division still affects the politics of modern-day Bangladesh.[43]

Operation Searchlight

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In March 1971, the Pakistani Army had a plan called Operation Searchlight. They did it to stop the Bengali nationalist movement in East Pakistan that wanted to separate from Pakistan.[44][45][46] The Pakistani government said it started Operation Searchlight because Bengalis attacked Biharis in early March.[47] The government in West Pakistan ordered this operation, which came after Operation Blitz that had started in November 1970. Then on 1 March 1971, the governor of East Pakistan, Admiral Syed Mohammad Ahsan, was replaced because he did not agree with using military force there.[48][49] The next governor was Sahibzada Yaqub Khan. He quit because he said no to using soldiers to stop a mutiny. He also did not agree with using military force in East Pakistan.[50][51]

According to Indian academic Sarmila Bose, the government postponed the National Assembly on 1 March. This set off lawlessness by Bengali protesters from 1 to 25 March, and the government lost control over much of the province. Bose says Bengalis attacked non-Bengalis and Pakistani troops during that time. She and journalist Anthony Mascarenhas say the military showed restraint until Operation Searchlight began on 25 March.[52] Bose also wrote about the crimes the Pakistani Army did in her book.[53] Anthony Mascarenhas said the Pakistani Army did things that were "altogether worse and on a grander scale" than what Bengalis did.[54]

On the night of 25 March 1971, the Pakistani Army began Operation Searchlight. Time magazine called General Tikka Khan the "Butcher of Bengal" because of what he did in that operation.[55] The operation went after several places, including Jagannath Hall, which was a dormitory at Dhaka University for non‑Muslim students, as well as Rajarbagh Police Lines and Pilkhana, the main building of the East Pakistan Rifles. Around 34 students were killed in the dormitories at Dhaka University, and the army also attacked parts of old Dhaka where many Hindus lived. American journalist Robert Payne said that 7,000 people were killed and 3,000 were arrested that night.[56] The Pakistani Army killed teachers at Dhaka University during the operation.[57] On 25 March, the Pakistani Army arrested Sheikh Mujibur Rahman.[58] Ramna Kali Mandir was broken by the Pakistani Army in March 1971.[33]

The original plan was to take control of the major cities on 26 March 1971, and then remove all political and military opposition within one month.[59] Pakistani planners did not expect the Bengalis to resist for so long.[60] The main part of Operation Searchlight ended in mid May. That was when Bengali forces lost the last major town they held. Still, the two sides were almost evenly matched in the countryside.[61]

The first report about the Bangladesh genocide came out on 13 June 1971. It was written by a West Pakistani journalist named Anthony Mascarenhas. It appeared in The Sunday Times in London, and the title was "Genocide". He wrote: "I saw Hindus, hunted from village to village and door to door, shot off-hand after a cursory 'short-arm inspection' showed they were uncircumcised. I have heard the screams of men bludgeoned to death in the compound of the Circuit House (civil administrative headquarters) in Comilla. I have seen truckloads of other human targets and those who had the humanity to try to help them hauled off 'for disposal' under the cover of darkness and curfew."[62]

This article helped turn world opinion against Pakistan and pushed India to intervene.[54] On 2 August 1971, a Time magazine dispatch described the destruction in East Pakistan. The dispatch said that in Dhaka, Pakistani soldiers set parts of the Old City on fire and shot many people as they tried to escape. It also said that whole sections of other cities were damaged by shelling and bombing. A US official called it the most calculated thing since Nazi times.[63][64]

The Blood Telegram

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Archer K. Blood was an American diplomat. On 28 March 1971, he wrote the Blood Telegram. He said the Nixon administration ignored what was happening. He wrote: "with support of the Pak military, non-Bengali Muslims are systematically attacking poor people's quarters and murdering Bengalis and Hindus."[65][66]

Number of people killed

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People disagree about how many people died.[67][68] According to the Heritage Foundation's Asian Studies Center, it could have been as few as 500,000 or as many as 3 million. It was during the Cold War and so different groups said more or fewer people had died depending on their own political ideas and goals.[69] The Soviets, who supported Bangladesh, said that it was 3 million. The CIA said it was 200,000. Pakistan was then an ally of the United States, and the West Pakistani soldiers used weapons given by the Americans.[14] India, which was also pro-Soviet, and Bangladesh state that nearly 3 million had been killed.[70]

In 1997, R. J. Rummel wrote the book Statistics of Democide: Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1900. In Chapter 8, Statistics Of Pakistan's Democide - Estimates, Calculations, And Sources, he noted:

In East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) [General Agha Mohammed Yahya Khan and his top generals] also planned to murder its Bengali intellectual, cultural, and political elite. They also planned to indiscriminately murder hundreds of thousands of its Hindus and drive the rest into India. And they planned to destroy its economic base to insure that it would be subordinate to West Pakistan for at least a generation to come. This despicable and cut throat plan was outright genocide.[71]

Rummel called it an act of killing specific groups of people: "Consolidating both ranges, I give a final estimate of Pakistan's democide to be 300,000 to 3,000,000, or a prudent 1,500,000."

Pro-Pakistan Islamist militias

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The Jamaat-e-Islami party[72] and some other pro-Pakistani Islamists opposed Bangladesh's fight for independence. They helped the Pakistani government and army because of "Islamic solidarity."[73][74][75]

Pakistan's secret service worked with the political party Jamaat-e-Islami to make militias such as Al-Badr ("the moon") and the Al-Shams ("the sun"). These groups carried out operations against the nationalist movement.[76][77] These militias attacked civilians. They also raped people and did other crimes.[78] Local helpers called Razakars also took part in the crimes. Today, the word "Razakar" is used as an insult, similar to calling someone a "Judas" in the West.[79]

Some political parties lost the election. These included the Muslim League, Nizam-e-Islam, Jamaat-e-Islami, and Jamiat Ulema Pakistan. They worked with the military and acted as spies.[80] Members of Jamaat-e-Islami and some of their leaders helped Pakistani forces do rapes and targeted killings.[81] The crimes of Al-Badr and Al-Shams were known around the world. News agencies wrote about the mass killings and rapes.[77][82][83]

Violence

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West Pakistani soldiers killed Hindus, Bengali Muslims, smart people, students and politicians in order to kill them all. They went to schools and killed everybody there.[84] The soldiers killed college professors at Dhaka University and other intellectual leaders because they thought they were the ones encouraging other East Pakistanis to want to be a separate country. They especially killed Hindu leaders. Then they killed young Hindu men because they thought young Hindu men would want to fight against them.[85] A TIME magazine article said "The Hindus are three-fourths of the refugees and most of the dead, have most disliked by the Muslim soldiers."[86]

Rape of Bengali Women

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During the nine months of war, the number of women raped is generally put between 200,000 and 400,000.[87] Both Muslim and Hindu women were targeted.[12] West Pakistani men believed that Hindus had corrupted the nation and that they needed to sacrifice Hindu women. Bengali women were seen as Hindu or Hindu-like.[8] Some religious leaders in West Pakistan issued a fatwa saying Bengali women could be treated as “war booty”.[88][82]

The Pakistani Army and their local helpers (razakars) kept Bengali women as sex‑slaves inside military camps. Many became pregnant.[75][89] After the war, Bangladesh’s leader Sheikh Mujibur Rahman called these women birangona (“heros”) to help remove the stigma they faced.[90]

Most rapes were committed by Pakistani soldiers and their allies. The Mukti Bahini and Indian Army also committed some abuses, but far fewer and not as part of a systematic campaign.[78]

The Pakistani Army’s commander in the east, General Niazi, was known to make offensive remarks about Bengalis. One witness later said: “The troops used to say that when the Commander was himself a rapist, how could they be stopped?”[91] Even Niazi himself complained in a secret memo about troops committing rape, saying that on 12 April 1971 two West Pakistani women were raped.[92]

Mass murder of Hindus

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An article in Time magazine on 2 August 1971 said: “The Hindus, who account for three-fourths of the refugees and a majority of the dead, have borne the brunt of the Muslim military hatred.”[93]

The government wanted to kill or drive out Hindus. Then their property could be given to middle‑class Muslims.[94] Colonel Naim said Hindus “undermined the Muslim masses.” He claimed that Bengali culture was Hindu culture. “We have to sort them out,” he said.[95] In April 1971, Major Rathore told a journalist: “Now under the cover of fighting we have an excellent opportunity of finishing them off. […] Of course […], we are only killing the Hindu men.”[96]

US government cables said Hindus were specific targets.[97][98] Army units went into villages and asked where Hindus lived. They killed Hindu men in a “common pattern.” They identified them because they were not circumcised.[99] Large massacres of Hindus took place at Jathibhanga,[100] Chuknagar, and Shankharipara.[101]

Senator Edward Kennedy wrote in 1971: “Hardest hit have been members of the Hindu community who have been robbed of their lands and shops, systematically slaughtered, and in some places, painted with yellow patches marked ‘H’.”[102] Buddhist temples and monks were also attacked.[103]

Journalist Sydney Schanberg reported that after the war, homes of Hindus still had yellow “H”s painted by the Pakistani Army. Missionaries told him massacres happened almost every day. In Barisal, over a thousand Hindus were killed in one day.[104][105]

Most agree that the atrocities were a genocide. Far-right[106] Islamic fundamentalists in Pakistan say that is "Bengali Lies."[107][108] Bangladeshi authorities and some independent organizations say that one to three million people were killed. Another 10 million ran away from the country to be safe in the Indian province of West Bengal.

No people involved in the genocide were put on trial until 2011.[109] Bangladesh's International Crimes Tribunals convicted 26 people for genocide and crimes against humanity. Some were executed, but international organizations stated that the accused had not been tried fairly.[69]

References

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  1. ↑ Pai, Nitin. "The 1971 East Pakistan Genocide – A Realist Perspective" (PDF). Bangladesh Genocide Archive. International Crimes Strategy Forum. Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 November 2022. Retrieved 21 September 2023.
  2. ↑ Bass 2013a, p.198:"The Nixon administration had ample evidence not just of the scale of the massacres, but also of their ethnic targeting of the Hindu minority—what Blood had condemned as genocide. This was common knowledge throughout the Nixon administration." sfn error: no target: CITEREFBass2013a (help)
  3. ↑
  4. ↑ Jahan, Rounaq (2013) [First published 1995]. "Genocide in Bangladesh" (PDF). In Totten, Samuel; Parsons, William S.; Charney, Israel W. (eds.). Centuries of Genocide: Critical Essays and Eyewitness Accounts (4thed.). Routledge. ISBN978-0-415-87192-1.
  5. ↑ MacDermot, Niall (June 1972). "The Review" (PDF). International Commission of Jurists. p.34. Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 March 2022. Retrieved 29 November 2023. As far as the other three groups are concerned, namely members of the Awami League, students and Hindus, only Hindus would seem to fall within the definition of 'a national, ethnical, racial or religious group'. There is overwhelming evidence that Hindus were slaughtered and their houses and villages destroyed simply because they were Hindus. The oft repeated phrase 'Hindus are enemies of the state' as a justification for the killing does not gainsay the intent to commit genocide; rather does it confirm the intention. The Nazis regarded the Jews as enemies of the state and killed them as such. In our view there is a strong prima facie case that the crime of genocide was committed against the group comprising the Hindu population of East Bengal.
  6. ↑ "The Past has yet to Leave the Present: Genocide in Bangladesh". Harvard International Review. 1 February 2023. Archived from the original on 30 June 2023. Retrieved 16 October 2023.
  7. ↑ D'Costa 2011, p.101. sfn error: no target: CITEREFD'Costa2011 (help)
  8. 1 2 3 Saikia 2011, p.52. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSaikia2011 (help)
  9. ↑ Bass 2013a, p.119:"Despite ongoing reports of unprovoked killing by soldiers, Blood saw the army launching a military campaign to take control of the countryside. Still, he thought, genocide was the right description for what was happening to the Hindus. So the consulate "began to focus our 'genocidal' reporting on the Hindus." The military crackdown, he cabled, "fully meets criteria of term 'genocide.'"49 Over and over, Blood tried to alarm his superiors in Washington. "'Genocide' applies fully to naked, calculated and widespread selection of Hindus for special treatment," he wrote. "From outset various members of American community have witnessed either burning down of Hindu villages, Hindu enclaves in Dacca and shooting of Hindus attempting [to] escape carnage, or have witnessed after-effects which [are] visible throughout Dacca today. Gunning down of Professor Dev of Dacca University philosophy department is one graphic example."50 He explained that the Pakistani military evidently did not "make distinctions between Indians and Pakistan Hindus, treating both as enemies." Such anti-Hindu sentiments were lingering and widespread, Blood wrote. He and his staff tenaciously kept up their reporting of anti-Hindu atrocities, telling how the Pakistan army would move into a village, ask where the Hindus lived, and then kill the Hindu men." sfn error: no target: CITEREFBass2013a (help)
  10. ↑ Bass 2013a, p.120:"Desaix Myers remembers, "We were aware the Hindu markets had been attacked. The villages that we visited were Hindu. We were aware that Hindus specically were being attacked." In a letter at the time, he wrote, "The Army continues to check, lifting lungis [a kind of sarong worn by Bengalis], checking circumcision, demanding recitation of Muslim prayers. Hindus flee or are shot." He recalls that on one trip out of Dacca, "I was convinced I saw people wearing pieces of cloth identifying themselves as Hindus." Butcher says, "You heard stories of men having to pull down their lungis. If they were circumcised, they were let go. If they were not, they were killed. It was singling out the Hindus for especially bad treatment, burning Hindu villages, it was like a pogrom. It was ridding the province of these people."" sfn error: no target: CITEREFBass2013a (help)
  11. ↑ Bass 2013a, p.302:"The CIA had a blunt explanation for this "incredible" migration: "many if not most of the Hindus fled for fear of their lives." Lieutenant General Tikka Khan, Yahya's military governor, evidently thought he could quickly frighten the Bengalis into submission. The Pakistan army, the CIA noted, seemed to have singled out Hindus as targets. Although the CIA refrained from crying genocide, it did insist this was an ethnic campaign, with 80 percent—or possibly even 90 percent— of the refugees being Hindus. So far, out of eight million refugees, over six million were Hindus, and many more might follow—ending perhaps only when East Pakistan had no more Hindus left.... This was confirmed by Sydney Schanberg of the New York Times, who, interviewing refugees in India, found that almost all of them were Hindus, who said that they were still specially hounded by the Pakistan army." sfn error: no target: CITEREFBass2013a (help)
  12. 1 2 Mookherjee 2021, p.594. sfn error: no target: CITEREFMookherjee2021 (help)
  13. ↑ Brecher 2008, p.169. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBrecher2008 (help)
  14. 1 2 3 Lorraine Boissoneault (16 December 2016). "The Genocide the U.S. Can't Remember, But Bangladesh Can't Forget". Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved 10 February 2021.
  15. ↑ Totten, Samuel (2008). Totten, Samuel; Parsons, William S. (eds.). Century of Genocide: Critical Essays and Eyewitness Accounts (3rded.). Routledge. p.246. doi:10.4324/9780203890431. ISBN978-0-203-89043-1. Archived from the original on 8 August 2024. Retrieved 21 September 2023.
  16. ↑ Mookherjee 2009, p.51. sfn error: no target: CITEREFMookherjee2009 (help)
  17. ↑ Visibilities and Invisibilities of Race and Racism: Toward a New Global Dialogue (2025) Faye V. Harrison, Yasuko I. Takezawa, Akio Tanabe
  18. ↑ Jones 2010, p.340. sfn error: no target: CITEREFJones2010 (help)
  19. ↑ Thompson 2007, p.42. sfn error: no target: CITEREFThompson2007 (help)
  20. ↑ Shah 1997, p.51. sfn error: no target: CITEREFShah1997 (help)
  21. ↑ "txt_jinnah_dacca_1948". Columbia University. Archived from the original on 22 October 2021. Retrieved 24 January 2022.
  22. ↑ Hossain & Tollefson 2006, p.245. sfn error: no target: CITEREFHossainTollefson2006 (help)
  23. ↑ Molla 2004, p.217. sfn error: no target: CITEREFMolla2004 (help)
  24. ↑ Harder 2010, p.351. sfn error: no target: CITEREFHarder2010 (help)
  25. ↑ Haggett 2001, p.2716. sfn error: no target: CITEREFHaggett2001 (help)
  26. ↑ Hagerty & Ganguly 2005, p.31. sfn error: no target: CITEREFHagertyGanguly2005 (help)
  27. ↑ Midlarsky 2011, p.257. sfn error: no target: CITEREFMidlarsky2011 (help)
  28. ↑ Riedel 2011, p.9. sfn error: no target: CITEREFRiedel2011 (help)
  29. ↑ Biswas, Sravani; Daly, Patrick (July 2021). "Cyclone Not Above Politics': East Pakistan, disaster politics, and the 1970 Bhola Cyclone". Modern Asian Studies. 55 (4). Cambridge University Press: 1382–1410. doi:10.1017/S0026749X20000293. hdl:10356/154579. ISSN0026-749X. S2CID224892294.
  30. ↑ Roy 2010, p.102. sfn error: no target: CITEREFRoy2010 (help)
  31. ↑ Filkins, Dexter (27 September 2013). "'The Blood Telegram,' by Gary J. Bass". The New York Times. ISSN0362-4331. Archived from the original on 11 June 2016. Retrieved 31 March 2016.
  32. ↑ Sisson & Rose 1992, p.141. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSissonRose1992 (help)
  33. 1 2 Dasgupta, Togawa & Barkat 2011, p.147. sfn error: no target: CITEREFDasguptaTogawaBarkat2011 (help)
  34. ↑ Hensher, Philip (19 February 2013). "The war Bangladesh can never forget". The Independent. London. Archived from the original on 28 December 2020. Retrieved 31 March 2016.
  35. ↑ Feldstein, Mark (2010). Poisoning the Press: Richard Nixon, Jack Anderson, and the Rise of Washington's Scandal Culture. Macmillan. p.8. ISBN9781429978972. Archived from the original on 8 August 2024. Retrieved 5 April 2016.
  36. ↑ Hewitt, William L. (2004). Defining the Horrific: Readings on Genocide and Holocaust in the 20th Century. Pearson Education. p.287. ISBN978-0-13-110084-8. Archived from the original on 17 March 2023. Retrieved 5 April 2016.
  37. ↑ Baxter, Craig (1997). Bangladesh: From A Nation To A State. Westview Press. p.88. ISBN978-0-813-33632-9. The Pakistanis had armed some groups, Bihari and Bengali, that opposed separation.
  38. ↑ Bose, Sarmila (8 October 2005). "Anatomy of Violence: Analysis of Civil War in East Pakistan in 1971" (PDF). Economic and Political Weekly. 40 (41): 4463–4471. JSTOR4417267. Archived (PDF) from the original on 28 December 2020. Retrieved 26 March 2016.
  39. ↑ Bose, Sarmila (November 2011). "The question of genocide and the quest for justice in the 1971 war" (PDF). Journal of Genocide Research. 13 (4): 398. doi:10.1080/14623528.2011.625750. S2CID38668401. Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 October 2017. Retrieved 18 March 2016.
  40. ↑ Cite error: The named reference :12 was used but no text was provided for refs named (see the help page).
  41. ↑ "The Demolition of Ramna Kali Temple in March 1971". Asian Tribune. Archived from the original on 23 September 2009. Retrieved 31 March 2016.
  42. ↑ "Last Word: Gary J. Bass". Newsweek Pakistan. 17 December 2013. Archived from the original on 28 December 2020. Retrieved 1 April 2016.
  43. ↑ Gill, John H. (1994). An Atlas of 1971 Indian-Pakistan war-the Creation of Bangladesh. NESA. p.66.
  44. ↑ Bose, Sarmila (8 October 2005). "Anatomy of Violence: Analysis of Civil War in East Pakistan in 1971". Economic and Political Weekly. Archived from the original on 1 March 2007.
  45. ↑ Spencer 2012, p.63. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSpencer2012 (help)
  46. ↑ Ganguly 2002, p.60. sfn error: no target: CITEREFGanguly2002 (help)
  47. ↑ D' Costa, Bina (2011). Nationbuilding, Gender and War Crimes in South Asia. Routledge. p.103. ISBN9780415565660.
  48. ↑ Cowasjee, Ardeshir (17 September 2000). "Gen Agha Mohammad Yahya Khan – 4". Dawn. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 31 March 2016.
  49. ↑ "Ahsan, Vice Admiral Syed Muhammad". Banglapedia. Archived from the original on 28 December 2020. Retrieved 31 March 2016.
  50. ↑ Roberts, Sam (28 January 2016). "Sahabzada Yaqub Khan, Pakistani Diplomat, Dies at 95". The New York Times. ISSN0362-4331. Archived from the original on 11 February 2018. Retrieved 31 March 2016.
  51. ↑ Editorial (27 January 2016). "Sahibzada Yaqub Khan". Dawn. Archived from the original on 28 December 2020. Retrieved 31 March 2016.
  52. ↑ Bose, Sarmila (8 October 2005). "Anatomy of Violence: Analysis of Civil War in East Pakistan in 1971" (PDF). Economic and Political Weekly: 4464–4465. Archived (PDF) from the original on 28 December 2020. Retrieved 26 March 2016.
  53. ↑ Bose, Sarmila. "'Smriti Irani misrepresented my work in her speech': Oxford researcher Sarmila Bose". Scroll.in. Archived from the original on 4 April 2016. Retrieved 1 April 2016.
  54. 1 2 Dummett 2011. sfn error: no target: CITEREFDummett2011 (help)
  55. ↑ "No lessons learnt in forty years". The Express Tribune. Archived from the original on 24 October 2016. Retrieved 31 March 2016.
  56. ↑ "The Black Night that still haunts the nation". The Daily Star. 25 March 2016. Archived from the original on 28 December 2020. Retrieved 30 March 2016.
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  65. ↑ Mahtab, Moyukh (23 December 2015). "The burden of remembrance". The Daily Star. Archived from the original on 28 December 2020. Retrieved 31 March 2016.
  66. ↑ U.S. Consulate (Dacca) Cable, Sitrep: Army Terror Campaign Continues in Dacca; Evidence Military Faces Some Difficulties Elsewhere Archived 21 December 2011 at the Wayback Machine, 31 March 1971, Confidential, 3 pp
  67. ↑ Matthew White's Death Tolls for the Major Wars and Atrocities of the Twentieth Century
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  69. 1 2 David Bergman (5 April 2016). "The Politics of Bangladesh's Genocide Debate". New York Times. Retrieved 10 February 2021.
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  71. ↑ Rummel, Rudolph J., "Statistics of Democide: Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1900", ISBN978-3-8258-4010-5, Chapter 8, table 8.1
  72. ↑ Baxter, Craig (1997). Bangladesh: From A Nation To A State. Westview Press. p.123. ISBN978-0-813-33632-9.
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  84. ↑ Sajit Gandhi The Tilt: The U.S. and the South Asian Crisis of 1971 National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 79 December 16, 2002 Archived 2009-06-12 at the Wayback Machine
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  86. ↑ Pakistan: The Ravaging of Golden Bengal Archived 2007-03-11 at the Wayback Machine,Time Magazine
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  89. ↑ "East Pakistan: Even the Skies Weep". Time. 25 October 1971. Archived from the original on 8 October 2009.
  90. ↑ Brownmiller, Susan (1993). Against Our Will. Ballantine Books. p.81. ISBN0-449-90820-8.
  91. ↑ "Genocide they wrote". The Daily Star. 2 December 2015. Archived from the original on 6 March 2016. Retrieved 1 April 2016.
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  94. ↑ Beachler, Donald (2007) 'The politics of genocide scholarship:the case of Bangladesh', Patterns of Prejudice, 41:5, 467 – 492
  95. ↑ Gerlach 2010, pp.144–145. sfn error: no target: CITEREFGerlach2010 (help)
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  100. ↑ Ahammed, Mohammad Shakeel (23 April 2011). "Ṭhākuragā'ōẏēra jāṭhibhāṅgā gaṇahatyā dibasa ud‌yāpana" ঠাকুরগাওয়ের জাঠিভাঙ্গা গণহত্যা দিবস উদ্‌যাপন. bdreport24.com (in Bengali). Archived from the original on 18 January 2013.
  101. ↑ Bose, Sarmila (2011). Dead Reckoning. Hurst. pp.73, 122.
  102. ↑ Kennedy, Senator Edward, "Crisis in South Asia", 1 November 1971, U.S. Govt. Press, page 66.
  103. ↑ "Bangladesh: A Bengali Abbasi Lurking Somewhere?". South Asia Analysis Group. 23 April 2001. Archived from the original on 13 June 2010.
  104. ↑ Schanberg, Sydney H. (14 July 1971). "West Pakistan Pursues Subjugation of Bengalis". The New York Times.
  105. ↑ Beachler 2007, p.478. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBeachler2007 (help)
  106. ↑ "Newsfront". Pakistan Forum. 2 (1): 20–25. 1971. ISSN0315-7725 – via JSTOR. Ideologically these are the parties of the far-right who have always collaborated with the exploiting classes.
  107. ↑ Editorial The Jamaat Talks Backin The Bangladesh Observer December 30, 2005 Archived 2010-12-23 at the Wayback Machine
  108. ↑ Dr. N. Rabbee Remembering a Martyr Star weekend Magazine, The Daily Star December 16, 2005 Archived 2009-01-07 at the Wayback Machine
  109. ↑ Mark Dummett (16 December 2011). "Bangladesh war: The article that changed history". BBC. Retrieved 10 February 2021.

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  1. ↑ Bengali: একাত্তরের গণহত্যা, romanized: Ēkātturēr Gôṇôhôtyā, lit. '71's genocide', Bengali: বাঙালি গণহত্যা, romanized: Bāṅāli Gôṇôhôtyā, lit. 'Bengali genocide')
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