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%PDF-1.2 %�� 1 0 obj << /Type /Page /Parent 9 0 R /Resources 3 0 R /Contents 2 0 R /Thumb 51 0 R >> endobj 2 0 obj << /Length 9214 >> stream q 0.2 i 0 810 613 -812 re 0 810 m W n 0.03 810.03 595.02 -810 re W n BT /F4 1 Tf 8 0 0 8 58.276 759.5352 Tm 0 0 0 1 k /GS1 gs 0 Tc 0 Tw (Environmental Conservation)Tj /F3 1 Tf 10.9641 0 TD (29)Tj /F1 1 Tf 1.1731 0 TD [($3$: 282�)-51.5(289 � 2002 Foundation for Environmental Conservation)-10365.7(DOI:10.1017/S0376892902000206)]TJ /F3 1 Tf 10 0 0 10 58.2699 614.6749 Tm (SUMMARY)Tj 0 -1.8 TD 0.2959 Tw (Ecotourism can be a vehicle for community-based)Tj 0 -1.2 TD -0.0292 Tw (conservation if it is conducted with an emphasis on the)Tj T* 0.0667 Tw (well-being of local ecosystems and human communi-)Tj T* 0.7772 Tw (ties. Birdwatchers form the largest group of)Tj T* 0.6259 Tw (ecotourists, and are, on average, well-educated,)Tj T* 0.4647 Tw (wealthy and committed. This makes them ideal)Tj T* 1.0286 Tw (ecotourists for community-based conservation.)Tj T* 0.0423 Tw (Therefore, there is a need for a comprehensive review)Tj T* 0.0511 Tw (of birdwatching from a conservation biology perspec-)Tj T* 0.2986 Tw (tive. Speci�c objectives here are: $1$ to review the)Tj T* 0.2957 Tw (economic potential of non-residential birdwatching)Tj T* 0.1187 Tw (for community-based conservation; $2$ to outline the)Tj T* 0.1656 Tw (potential bene�ts and problems associated with this)Tj T* 0.0816 Tw (activity; and $3$ to provide suggestions for improving)Tj T* 0.0441 Tw (the conservation value of birdwatching. Birdwatching)Tj T* 0.0759 Tw (tourism has a high potential to improve the �nancial)Tj T* 0.1583 Tw (and environmental well-being of local communities,)Tj T* 0.3079 Tw (educate locals about the value of biodiversity and)Tj T* 0.3514 Tw (create local and national incentives for successful)Tj T* -0.0301 Tw (protection and preservation of natural areas. However,)Tj T* -0.0222 Tw (there needs to be more research on the economical and)Tj T* 0.1625 Tw (environmental impacts of this hobby, birdwatching-)Tj T* -0.0267 Tw (related disturbance needs to be reduced, and much has)Tj T* 0.2218 Tw (to be done to increase the �nancial contribution of)Tj T* 0.0235 Tw (birdwatching to local communities.)Tj /F4 1 Tf 0 -1.8 TD 0 Tw (Keywords)Tj /F1 1 Tf 3.6999 0 TD -0.0014 Tw (: bird disturbance, birdwatching, community-based)Tj -3.6999 -1.2 TD 0.3351 Tw (conservation, ecotourism, pro�t leakage, protected areas,)Tj T* 0.0235 Tw (sustainable use)Tj /F3 1 Tf 0 -3 TD 0 Tw (INTRODUCTION)Tj /F1 1 Tf 0 -1.8 TD [(The)-902(International)-902(Ecotourism)-902(Society�s)-902(de�nition)-902(of)]TJ 0 -1.2 TD [(ecotourism)-668.1(is)-668.1(�Responsible)-668.1(travel)-668.1(to)-668.1(natural)-668.1(areas)-668.1(that)]TJ T* [(conserves)-374.3(the)-374.3(environment)-374.3(and)-374.3(improves)-374.3(the)-374.3(well-being)-374.3(of)]TJ T* [(local)-208(people�)-208($Honey)-208(1999$.)-208(Ideally,)-208(ecotourism)-208(creates)-208(a)-208(local)]TJ T* [(incentive)-320.9(for)-320.9(conserving)-320.9(natural)-320.8(areas)-320.9(by)-320.9(generating)-320.9(income)]TJ T* [(through)-983.4(operations)-983.4(that)-983.4(are)-983.4(sustainable,)-983.4(low-impact)]TJ T* [($environmental)-602(and)-602(social$,)-602(low-investment,)-602(and)-602(locally-)]TJ T* [(owned)-458($Boo)-458(1990;)-458(Goodwin)-458(1996;)-458(King)-458(&)-458(Stewart)-458(1996;)]TJ T* [(Isaacs)-372.2(2000$.)-372.2(Unfortunately,)-372.2(this)-372.2(ideal)-372.2(is)-372.3(rarely)-372.2(reached,)-372.2(in)]TJ T* [(part)-401.4(due)-401.5(to)-401.4(what)-401.4(may)-401.4(be)-401.4(an)-401.4(inherent)-401.4(paradox:)-401.4(ecotourism)]TJ 25.7998 50.4 TD [(aims)-385(to)-385(combine)-385(market-driven)-385(consumption)-385(of)-385(goods)-385(and)]TJ 0 -1.2 TD [(services)-532.3(with)-532.3(sustainability)-532.3($Isaacs)-532.3(2000$.)-532.3(In)-532.3(some)-532.3(cases,)]TJ T* [(ecotourism)-640.3(actually)-640.3(creates)-640.3(new)-640.3(�nancial)-640.3(incentives)-640.3(for)]TJ T* [(encroachment)-291.3(of)-291.3(natural)-291.3(areas)-291.3(through)-291.3(land)-291.3(speculation)-291.3($Yu)]TJ /F4 1 Tf T* [(et)-343.6(al)]TJ /F1 1 Tf 1.7296 0 TD (.)Tj 0.6036 0 TD [(1997$.)-343.6(Add)-343.6(to)-343.6(that)-343.6(the)-343.6(exclusion)-343.6(of)-343.6(local)-343.6(people)-343.6(from)]TJ -2.3332 -1.2 TD [(most)-241.4(of)-241.4(the)-241.3(bene�ts,)-241.4(leakage)-241.4(of)-241.4(pro�ts)-241.4(out)-241.3(of)-241.4(the)-241.4(area,)-241.4(distur-)]TJ T* [(bance)-426.2(of)-426.2(wildlife,)-426.2(pollution,)-426.2(and)-426.2(even)-426.2(the)-426.2(outright)-426.2(habitat)]TJ T* [(destruction)-282.5(that)-282.5(many)-282.5(�ecotourism�)-282.5(operations)-282.5(cause)-282.5($Honey)]TJ T* [(1999;)-287.9(Page)-287.9(&)-287.9(Dowling)-287.9(2002$,)-287.9(and)-287.9(it)-287.9(is)-287.9(easy)-287.9(to)-287.9(see)-287.9(why)-287.9(some)]TJ T* [(consider)-431(ecotourism)-431(just)-431(another)-431(environmentally-destruc-)]TJ T* [(tive)-713(marketing)-713(device)-713($Boo)-713(1990;)-713(Giannecchini)-713(1993$.)]TJ T* [(Adoption)-490.6(of)-490.6(only)-490.6(a)-490.6(few)-490.6(super�cial)-490.6(aspects)-490.6(of)-490.6(ecotourism)]TJ T* [(without)-221.7(making)-221.7(substantial)-221.7(changes)-221.7(to)-221.7(business)-221.7(practices)-221.7(that)]TJ T* [(are)-371.6(not)-371.6(environmentally)-371.6(sound)-371.6(has)-371.6(been)-371.6(called)-371.6(�ecotourism)]TJ T* [(lite�)-430.1($Honey)-430.1(1999$,)-430.1(and)-430.1(is)-430.1(likely)-430.1(to)-430.1(do)-430.1(more)-430.1(damage)-430.1(than)]TJ T* [(good.)-209.6(In)-209.6(fact,)-209.6(activities)-209.6(ranging)-209.6(from)-209.6(powerboat)-209.6(trips)-209.6(through)]TJ T* [(narrow)-474.1(gorges)-474.2(to)-474.1(chasing)-474.2(elephants)-474.1(with)-474.1(paint-guns)-474.1(have)]TJ T* [(been)-325.7(called)-325.7(�ecotourism�)-325.6($Watkins)-325.7(2000$.)-325.7(Nevertheless,)-325.7(true)]TJ T* [(ecotourism)-467(is)-467(preferable)-467(to)-467(alternative)-467(forms)-467(of)-467(economic)]TJ T* [(development,)-730.6(such)-730.7(as)-730.6(logging,)-730.6(mining,)-730.7(or)-730.6(agriculture,)]TJ T* [(because)-325.3(properly)-325.3(conducted)-325.3(ecotourism)-325.3(has)-325.3(the)-325.3(potential)-325.3(to)]TJ T* [(protect)-217.7(natural)-217.7(areas)-217.7(and)-217.7(bene�t)-217.7(local)-217.7(people)-217.7(at)-217.7(the)-217.7(same)-217.7(time)]TJ T* [($Weaver)-263.6(1998$.)]TJ 1.2 -1.2 TD 0.0197 Tw (Birdwatching is the act of observing and identifying birds)Tj -1.2 -1.2 TD 0.2255 Tw (in their native habitats. Birdwatchers are one of the best)Tj T* 0.2135 Tw (sources of ecotourism income since they form the largest)Tj T* 0.1628 Tw (single group of ecotourists, are educated, and have above-)Tj T* 0.5807 Tw (average incomes $Ceballos-Lascur�in 1996; Cordell &)Tj T* 0.0052 Tw (Herbert 2002$. Because of the zeal of many birdwatchers and)Tj T* 0.3374 Tw (the resources these people are willing to invest in this)Tj T* 0.0417 Tw (activity, birdwatching is becoming the most rapidly growing)Tj T* 0.0872 Tw (and most environmentally conscious segment of ecotourism)Tj T* 0.2167 Tw (and provides economic hope for many threatened natural)Tj T* 0.1451 Tw (areas around the world $Cordell & Herbert 2002$. For the)Tj T* 0.4118 Tw (purposes of this paper, I will not consider residential)Tj T* 0.0665 Tw (birdwatchers since they do not engage in any birdwatching-)Tj T* 0.0235 Tw (related travel.)Tj 1.2 -1.2 TD 0.0902 Tw (The rapid growth of birdwatching and its high potential)Tj -1.2 -1.2 TD -0.0279 Tw (for providing a �nancial motivation for local people to protect)Tj T* 0.0204 Tw (natural areas merits a comprehensive review of birdwatching)Tj T* 0.0543 Tw (from a conservation biology perspective. The speci�c objec-)Tj T* 0.0419 Tw (tives of this review are: $1$ to outline the economic potential)Tj T* 0.2002 Tw (of birdwatching for community-based conservation; $2$ to)Tj T* 0.0669 Tw (examine the potential bene�ts and problems associated with)Tj T* 0.0352 Tw (this hobby; and $3$ to provide suggestions for improving the)Tj T* 0.0235 Tw (conservation value of birdwatching.)Tj /F3 1 Tf 15 0 0 15 58.2699 730.7534 Tm 0 Tw (Impacts of birdwatching on human and avian communities)Tj /F1 1 Tf 10 0 0 10 58.2699 706.7534 Tm (C)Tj 0.287 -0.2 TD (.)Tj 0.47 0.2 TD 0.11 Tc (AG)Tj 1.078 0.2 TD 0 Tc (�)Tj 0.543 -0.2 TD 0.11 Tc (AN H. S)Tj 3.8122 -0.2 TD 0 Tc (.)Tj 0.47 0.2 TD 0.11 Tc (EKERCI)Tj 3.937 0.8 TD 0 Tc (.)Tj 0.37 -0.8 TD 0.11 Tc (OG)Tj 1.13 0.2 TD 0 Tc (�)Tj 0.543 -0.2 TD 0.11 Tc (LU*)Tj /F4 1 Tf 9 0 0 9 58.2699 695.7534 Tm 0 Tc (Center for Conservation Biology, Department of Biological Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305-5020, USA)Tj /F1 1 Tf 0 -1.2222 TD (Date submitted: 5 October 2001 Date accepted: 20 May 2002)Tj -0.1411 -66.7596 TD (*)Tj 0.634 0 TD 0.178 Tw (Correspondence: Dr C)Tj 8.9712 -0.2222 TD 0 Tw (.)Tj 0.46 0.2222 TD (ag)Tj 0.475 0 TD (�)Tj 0.433 0 TD 0.0001 Tc 0.1779 Tw (an S)Tj 1.5131 -0.2222 TD 0 Tc 0 Tw (.)Tj 0.36 0.2222 TD (ekerciog)Tj 2.883 0 TD (�)Tj 0.433 0 TD 0.1781 Tw (lu Tel: )Tj /F2 1 Tf 3.2733 0 TD 0 Tw ()Tj /F1 1 Tf 0.8328 0 TD 0.178 Tw (1 650 724 6355)Tj -20.2683 -1.1111 TD 0 Tw (Fax: )Tj /F2 1 Tf 2.0186 0 TD ()Tj /F1 1 Tf 0.8328 0 TD 0.0235 Tw [(1 650 723 5920 e-mail:)-258.6(cagan@stanford.edu)]TJ ET 0 0 0 1 K 0 J 0 j 0.5 w 10 M []0 d 57 95.25 m 297 95.25 l S Q 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0.01998 /TR /Identity >> endobj 9 0 obj << /Type /Pages /Kids [ 1 0 R 11 0 R 14 0 R 18 0 R 21 0 R 24 0 R 27 0 R 30 0 R ] /Count 8 /MediaBox [ 0 0 595 810 ] >> endobj 11 0 obj << /Type /Page /Parent 9 0 R /Resources 13 0 R /Contents 12 0 R /Thumb 53 0 R >> endobj 12 0 obj << /Length 8940 >> stream q 0.2 i 0 810 613 -812 re 0 810 m W n 0.03 810.03 595.02 -810 re W n BT /F3 1 Tf 10 0 0 10 57.2756 734.1689 Tm 0 0 0 1 k /GS1 gs 0 Tc 0 Tw (ECONOMIC POTENTIAL OF BIRDWATCHING)Tj /F1 1 Tf 0 -2.4 TD 0.0566 Tw (According to the estimates of the most recent USA national)Tj 0 -1.2 TD 0.2285 Tw (survey on recreation and the environment $NSRE$ about)Tj T* -0.0268 Tw (69.0 million people over age 16, or about a third of the human)Tj T* 0.4093 Tw (population of the USA over 16, viewed, identi�ed or)Tj T* 0.0793 Tw (photographed birds in the 12 months preceding the survey;)Tj T* -0.0309 Tw (this was as many people as did any �shing or day hiking in the)Tj T* -0.012 Tw (preceding 12 months $Cordell & Herbert 2002$. Even though)Tj T* 0.0682 Tw (NSRE standards for what constitutes birdwatching are very)Tj T* 0.192 Tw (broad, 28% of birdwatchers, or an estimated 19.3 million)Tj T* 0.1159 Tw (people, reported birdwatching more than 50 days per year.)Tj T* 0.216 Tw (Since 1983, the number of birdwatchers in the USA has)Tj T* -0.0219 Tw (increased by 332%, making birdwatching the fastest-growing)Tj T* 0.3778 Tw (outdoor recreational activity in the country $Cordell &)Tj T* 0.0235 Tw (Herbert 2002$.)Tj 1.2 -1.2 TD 0.1333 Tw (In general, birdwatchers are educated and af�uent. The)Tj -1.2 -1.2 TD 0.4128 Tw (average income of a birdwatcher in the USA is over )Tj T* 0.0838 Tw [(US$)-165(50)-165(000, and about a third have at least a college degree)]TJ T* -0.0232 Tw ($Cordell & Herbert 2002$. This makes them ideal ecotourists,)Tj T* 0.0828 Tw (since they are likely to have a high awareness of nature and)Tj T* 0.0529 Tw (also spend signi�cant amounts of money in pursuit of birds.)Tj T* 0.2659 Tw (Birdwatching-related expenses were estimated to be over)Tj T* 0.1324 Tw [(US$)-165(23 billion in 1996, contributing to the employment of)]TJ T* 0.0275 Tw [(almost 800)-262.6(000 people $US Department of the Interior, Fish)]TJ T* 0.2515 Tw (and Wildlife Service and US Department of Commerce,)Tj T* 0.0314 Tw (Bureau of the Census 1996$. In that year alone, an estimated)Tj T* 0.1556 Tw (17.7 million birdwatchers travelled more than a mile from)Tj T* 0.328 Tw (their homes in order to observe birds and spent about )Tj T* 0.1936 Tw [(US$)-165(7.6 billion on trip-related expenses, excluding equip-)]TJ T* -0.0268 Tw (ment. The annual economic impact of �ve major birding sites)Tj T* 0.0946 Tw [(in the USA was estimated to be US$)-165(2.4 million to US$)-165(40)]TJ T* 0.2065 Tw (million $Kerlinger & Brett 1995$. Munn $1992$ estimated)Tj T* 0.0013 Tw (that each macaw visiting a clay lick in south-eastern Peru can)Tj T* 0.1862 Tw [(potentially generate US$)-165(750)-51.5(�)-51.5(4700 in tourist receipts in a)]TJ T* 0.0235 Tw [(year and US$)-165(22)-165(500)-51.5(�)-51.5(165)-165(000 over its lifetime.)]TJ 1.2 -1.2 TD 0.2908 Tw [(According to Kellert $1985$, 300)-525.9(000 American bird-)]TJ -1.2 -1.2 TD 0.2211 Tw (watchers can be considered committed. These committed)Tj T* 0.1902 Tw (birdwatchers form the core group of international birding)Tj T* 0.3793 Tw (trip participants. Based on the 1994 American Birding)Tj T* 0.9567 Tw (Association membership survey $American Birding)Tj T* -0.027 Tw (Association 1994$, 49% of committed birdwatchers travel out)Tj T* 0.1062 Tw (of the country for birdwatching. Of those, 32% have taken)Tj T* 0.3397 Tw (part in an organized bird tour. There are at least 127)Tj T* 0.0608 Tw (companies that offer birdwatching tours worldwide $see, for)Tj T* 0.4712 Tw (example, Birding.com 2001$, and considering that the)Tj T* 0.044 Tw (average trip to a less developed country $)Tj /F4 1 Tf 16.3538 0 TD 0 Tw (sensu)Tj /F1 1 Tf 2.1661 0 TD 0.044 Tw (Weaver 1998$)Tj -18.5199 -1.2 TD 0.2598 Tw (from one of the largest six birding companies $over 150)Tj T* 0.1879 Tw (birding tours per year$ has 12 participants and costs over)Tj T* 0.1713 Tw [(US$)-165(4000 per person, the �nancial impact of international)]TJ T* 0.0235 Tw (birdwatching can be substantial.)Tj 1.2 -1.2 TD 0.01 Tc 0 Tw [(Birdwatchers)-717.9(often)-717.9(visit)-717.9(places)-717.9(outside)-717.9(the)-717.9(tourist)]TJ -1.2 -1.2 TD [(season)-573.8(or)-573.8(places)-573.8(that)-573.8(have)-573.8(no)-573.8(other)-573.8(tourist)-573.8(attractions)]TJ T* [($Kerlinger)-353(&)-352.9(Brett)-352.9(1995$.)-353(In)-352.9(addition)-353(to)-352.9(contributing)-353(to)-352.9(a)]TJ T* [(country�s)-380.4(economy)-380.4(through)-380.4(the)-380.3(purchase)-380.4(of)-380.3(typical)-380.4(travel)]TJ T* [(goods)-486.8(and)-486.7(services,)-486.8(independent)-486.8(birdwatchers)-486.8(and)-486.8(bird-)]TJ 25.8 66 TD [(watching)-455.3(tours)-455.3(may)-455.3(also)-455.3(hire)-455.3(local)-455.3(nature)-455.3(guides,)-455.3(some-)]TJ 0 -1.2 TD [(times)-677.6(paying)-677.6(as)-677.6(much)-677.6(as)-677.6(US$)-175(150)-677.6(per)-677.6(day,)-677.6(even)-677.6(in)]TJ T* [(low-income)-554.7(countries)-554.6(like)-554.6(Kenya)-554.6(and)-554.6(South)-554.6(Africa.)-554.6(In)]TJ T* [(1999,)-373.5(the)-373.5(Costa)-373.5(Rican)-373.5(Tourism)-373.5(Institute)-373.5($ICT$)-373.5(estimated)]TJ T* [(that)-280.4(41%)-280.5(of)-280.4(the)-280.4(US$)-175(1)-280.4(billion)-280.5(tourism)-280.5(income)-280.5(for)-280.4(that)-280.4(year)]TJ T* [(was)-629.1(from)-629.2(tourists)-629.2(who)-629.1(came)-629.2(to)-629.1(Costa)-629.1(Rica)-629.2(for)-629.1(bird-)]TJ T* [(watching)-713.1($R.)-713(Arias)-713.1(de)-713(Para,)-713.1(personal)-713.1(communication)]TJ T* (2001$.)Tj /F3 1 Tf 0 -3 TD 0 Tc (ECONOMIC AND ECOLOGICAL IMPACTS OF)Tj 0 -1.2 TD (BIRDWATCHERS)Tj /F1 1 Tf 0 -1.8 TD 0.2889 Tw (Birdwatchers, like most ecotourists, are highly educated,)Tj 0 -1.2 TD 0.0722 Tw (both in terms of conventional education, as well as in terms)Tj T* -0.0301 Tw (of ecological knowledge and their higher awareness of conser-)Tj T* 0.0783 Tw (vation issues $Cordell & Herbert 2002$. For example, about)Tj T* 0.0175 Tw [(two-thirds of the 600)-165(000 members of the National Audubon)]TJ T* 0.3011 Tw (Society, a prominent conservation organization, are self-)Tj T* 0.3035 Tw (proclaimed birdwatchers $Dickinson & Edmonson 1996$.)Tj T* 0.1766 Tw (Compared to the average ecotourist, birdwatchers are also)Tj T* 0.0116 Tw (more independent, focused and committed $Page & Dowling)Tj T* 0.5787 Tw (2002$. The high expectations of many birdwatchers,)Tj T* -0.0154 Tw (combined with their high average incomes, can result in large)Tj T* 0.1236 Tw (�nancial contributions to the localities visited $Kerlinger &)Tj T* 0.0235 Tw (Brett 1995$.)Tj 1.2 -1.2 TD 0.4744 Tw (Given their education and high expectations, bird-)Tj -1.2 -1.2 TD 0.2588 Tw (watchers are more likely to make efforts to reduce their)Tj T* 0.2927 Tw (environmental impact, to appreciate the distinctness and)Tj T* 0.0874 Tw (signi�cance of different ecosystems and to pay the required)Tj T* 0.1431 Tw (protected-area fees while travelling, than other ecotourists,)Tj T* 0.1219 Tw (although there has been very little research on these issues)Tj T* 0 Tw ($Hill )Tj /F4 1 Tf 2.3078 0 TD 0.1987 Tw (et al)Tj /F1 1 Tf 1.8198 0 TD (. 1997$. Birdwatching also has a lower environ-)Tj -4.1276 -1.2 TD 0.1701 Tw (mental impact than many other outdoor activities that are)Tj T* 0.0698 Tw (mislabelled as ecotourism, such as multiple vehicles chasing)Tj T* 0.2829 Tw (cheetahs in Masai Mara, jet boats roaring through New)Tj T* 0.0548 Tw (Zealand canyons or off-road vehicle trips destroying the top)Tj T* 0.2364 Tw (soil in various parts of the world $Weaver 1998; Page &)Tj T* 0.0235 Tw (Dowling 2002$.)Tj 1.2 -1.2 TD -0.0082 Tw (Below, I present a detailed analysis of the pros and cons of)Tj -1.2 -1.2 TD 0.5081 Tw (having birdwatchers in ecologically-sensitive areas and)Tj T* 0.1249 Tw (provide some recommendations for minimum-impact bird-)Tj T* 0.3206 Tw (watching practices that would bene�t local communities)Tj T* 0.194 Tw ($Table 1$. My focus is on birdwatching in less-developed)Tj T* 0.2345 Tw (countries, especially in the tropics, from where there are)Tj T* 0.2688 Tw (hardly any data on the ecological, economical and social)Tj T* 0.1745 Tw (aspects of birdwatching $Groom )Tj /F4 1 Tf 13.6295 0 TD (et al)Tj /F1 1 Tf 1.7956 0 TD (. 1991; Munn 1992$.)Tj -15.4251 -1.2 TD 0.2683 Tw (Consequently, I will use a few examples from my bird-)Tj T* 0.1285 Tw (watching experience in over 30 less-developed countries to)Tj T* 0.0235 Tw (supplement the published data.)Tj /F3 1 Tf 0 -3 TD 0 Tw (Bene�ts of birdwatching)Tj /F4 1 Tf 0 -1.8 TD 0.0235 Tw (Why commodi�cation may be a good thing)Tj /F1 1 Tf 0 -1.2 TD 0.0382 Tw (Birdwatchers� knowledge of birds and expectations of seeing)Tj T* 0.0074 Tw (a variety of species provide a direct link between avian biodi-)Tj T* 0.0641 Tw (versity of a region and local income. Although birdwatchers)Tj /F4 1 Tf 9.0098 68.4 TD 0.0235 Tw (Birdwatching and conservation)Tj /F1 1 Tf 13.5831 0 TD 0 Tw (283)Tj ET Q endstream endobj 13 0 obj << /ProcSet [ /PDF /Text ] /Font << /F1 4 0 R /F3 6 0 R /F4 7 0 R >> /ExtGState << /GS1 8 0 R >> >> endobj 14 0 obj << /Type /Page /Parent 9 0 R /Resources 16 0 R /Contents 15 0 R /Thumb 55 0 R >> endobj 15 0 obj << /Length 7897 >> stream q 0.2 i 0 810 613 -812 re 0 810 m W n 0.03 810.03 595.02 -810 re W n BT /F1 1 Tf 10 0 0 10 58.276 758.1689 Tm 0 0 0 1 k /GS1 gs 0 Tc 0 Tw (284)Tj /F4 1 Tf 3.407 0 TD 0.0235 Tw (C.H. S)Tj 2.4096 -0.2 TD 0 Tw (.)Tj 0.36 0.2 TD (ekerciog)Tj 2.591 0 TD 0.05 Tc [(�l)50(u)]TJ /F1 1 Tf -8.7681 -29.9498 TD 0 Tc 0.1655 Tw (are sometimes criticized for commodifying nature through)Tj 0 -1.2 TD 0.0725 Tw (�twitching� or �listing� $the intensive practice of making lists)Tj T* 0.0642 Tw (of bird species seen$, this commodi�cation actually makes it)Tj T* 0.175 Tw (possible for local communities in areas with many and/or)Tj T* 0.0073 Tw (rare bird species to generate more income from hosting bird-)Tj T* 0.3672 Tw (watchers than other tourists. However, many rare bird)Tj T* 0.0065 Tw (species are highly sensitive to disturbance and are threatened)Tj T* 0.2192 Tw ($BirdLife International 2000$, so birdwatchers and guides)Tj T* 0.0214 Tw (should be particularly careful to minimize the disturbance of)Tj T* 0.0235 Tw (rare species.)Tj 1.2 -1.2 TD 0.1289 Tw (Because most birdwatchers know what they want to see)Tj -1.2 -1.2 TD 0.0121 Tw (and have high expectations of seeing certain species, they are)Tj T* 0.1252 Tw (likely to spend more money in order to see bird species in)Tj T* 0.0303 Tw (their natural environment than the average ecotourist who is)Tj T* 0.0323 Tw (not particularly interested in birds. The consequent increase)Tj T* -0.0127 Tw (in the local awareness of the value of bird biodiversity may be)Tj T* 0.0432 Tw (one key to preserving many natural areas near human popu-)Tj T* 0.2972 Tw (lation centres. Local people who derive direct monetary)Tj T* 0.2671 Tw (bene�ts from biodiversity as a result of showing various)Tj T* 0.1259 Tw (species to birdwatchers are more likely to conserve ecosys-)Tj T* 0.0149 Tw (tems that harbour unusual birds. That would not be as likely)Tj T* 0.061 Tw (if locals mostly hosted ecotourists for whom a muddy forest)Tj T* 0.0291 Tw (trail, a waterfall and a few unusual organisms may constitute)Tj T* 0.0235 Tw (an exotic adventure.)Tj /F4 1 Tf 0 -2.4 TD (Increased value of local differences due to unique bird species)Tj /F1 1 Tf 0 -1.2 TD 0.0619 Tw (One of the biggest concerns with regard to the effectiveness)Tj T* 0.2207 Tw (of market-based initiatives in limiting negative impact on)Tj T* 0.1447 Tw (ecosystems is global competition between ecotourism sites.)Tj T* 0.324 Tw (For many people, the differences between natural areas)Tj T* 0.1166 Tw (around the world may not be signi�cant, resulting in these)Tj T* -0.0116 Tw (places becoming competitors in a single market $Isaacs 2000$.)Tj T* 0.1592 Tw (This is especially the case for rainforests, which, although)Tj 25.7998 38.4 TD 0.3126 Tw (highly differentiated and diverse, may seem identical to)Tj 0 -1.2 TD 0.0235 Tw (tourists with limited knowledge.)Tj 1.2 -1.2 TD 0.0231 Tw (Competition and fear of pro�t loss may make it less likely)Tj -1.2 -1.2 TD 0.0654 Tw (that operators will follow more costly environmental princi-)Tj T* 0.2845 Tw (ples as a marketing strategy, especially if clients do not)Tj T* 0.1724 Tw (discern habitat-quality differences between sites $Yu )Tj /F4 1 Tf 21.9462 0 TD 0.1725 Tw (et al)Tj /F1 1 Tf 1.7935 0 TD 0 Tw (.)Tj -23.7398 -1.2 TD -0.0063 Tw (1997$. Operators may try to minimize expenses and may stop)Tj T* -0.0144 Tw (taking costly measures to limit pollution, habitat disturbance,)Tj T* -0.0135 Tw (harassment of wildlife and other detrimental consequences of)Tj T* -0.0269 Tw (tourism. They may seek vertical integration and may contract)Tj T* 0.0046 Tw (with an international chain to take advantage of economies of)Tj T* -0.0331 Tw (scale to reduce costs and uncertainty $Isaacs 2000$. This often)Tj T* 0.0851 Tw (results in less local control and lower economical returns to)Tj T* 0.0216 Tw (local communities, violating one of the most important prin-)Tj T* 0.0235 Tw (ciples of responsible ecotourism.)Tj 1.2 -1.2 TD 0.3137 Tw (Since the premise of birdwatching, especially that of)Tj -1.2 -1.2 TD 0.0543 Tw (listing, is based on the identi�cation of distinct bird species,)Tj T* 0.1725 Tw (the differences between distinct bird communities become)Tj T* 0.0859 Tw (highly signi�cant. This reduces global competition between)Tj T* 0.0345 Tw (natural areas and results in a more even distribution of bird-)Tj T* 0.1052 Tw (watching tourism across the globe, as can be seen from the)Tj T* 0.0579 Tw (itineraries of birdwatching tour companies $see Birding.com)Tj T* 0.0357 Tw (2001$. Differentiation of birdwatching destinations increases)Tj T* -0.032 Tw (the amount of local control, as well as the pro�ts for any given)Tj T* 0.2503 Tw (area, resulting in increased incentives for local people to)Tj T* 0.3583 Tw (protect the environment $Isaacs 2000$. In addition, the)Tj T* 0.0589 Tw (importance of speci�c destinations provides a greater incen-)Tj T* 0.3166 Tw (tive for birdwatching tour operators to make sure their)Tj T* 0.0235 Tw (destinations are well-protected.)Tj /F4 1 Tf 0 -2.4 TD (Inclusion of areas without of�cial protection)Tj /F1 1 Tf 0 -1.2 TD 0.0233 Tw (Better ecological knowledge and higher expectations of bird-)Tj T* -0.027 Tw (watchers also result in the preservation of many areas without)Tj 9 0 0 9 58.2709 692.855 Tm 0 Tw (A link between avian diversity and local )Tj 1 -1.2222 TD (income)Tj -1 -1.5556 TD (A �nancial incentive to conserve wildlife)Tj T* (Less impact and more income than typical )Tj 1 -1.2222 TD (tourism )Tj -1 -1.5555 TD (Increased local control due to unique bird )Tj 1 -1.2222 TD (species)Tj -1 -1.5555 TD (Visitation of areas outside traditional tourist )Tj 1 -1.2222 TD (itineraries )Tj -1 -1.5556 TD (Protection of unprotected areas with desired)Tj 1 -1.2222 TD (species )Tj -1 -1.5556 TD (Valuation of local natural history knowledge )Tj T* (Education and employment of local guides)Tj T* (Generation of funds for bird conservation)Tj T* (Contribution to ornithological knowledge)Tj 18.8887 20.1111 TD (Disturbing birds by playing tapes and by )Tj 1 -1.2222 TD (approaching)Tj -1 -1.5556 TD (Increased nest predation and nest )Tj 1 -1.2222 TD (abandonment)Tj -1 -1.5556 TD (Increased disturbance of rare and/or )Tj 1 -1.2222 TD (threatened birds)Tj -1 -1.5556 TD (Visitor-related pollution and habitat )Tj 1 -1.2222 TD (destruction)Tj -1 -1.5555 TD (Cash leaks from local communities )Tj T* (Resentment by excluded locals )Tj T* (Cultural degradation associated with )Tj 1 -1.2222 TD (tourism)Tj 17.8887 15.4444 TD -0.01 Tc [(Adhere)-150.1(to)-150.1(and)-150.1(insist)-150.1(on)-150.1(ethical)-150.1(birding)-150.1(conduct)]TJ 0 -1.5556 TD 0 Tc (Avoid nests and young as much as possible)Tj T* (Show particular care with threatened and )Tj 1 -1.2222 TD (rare species)Tj -1 -1.5555 TD (Minimize tape use and try to minimize )Tj 1 -1.2222 TD (being seen )Tj -1 -1.5556 TD (Do not approach further once a bird notices )Tj 1 -1.2222 TD 0.0001 Tw (you )Tj -1 -1.5556 TD 0 Tw (Stick to established roads/trails/walkways )Tj T* (Use scopes for observation and photography)Tj T* (Educate locals about birds and their )Tj 1 -1.2222 TD (�nancial bene�ts )Tj -1 -1.5556 TD (Support local and low-impact )Tj 1 -1.2222 TD (establishments )Tj -1 -1.5556 TD (Contribute to NGOs active in bird )Tj 1 -1.2222 TD (conservation)Tj ET 0 0 0 1 K 0 J 0 j 0.667 w 10 M []0 d 57 730.52 m 555 730.52 l 57 729.19 m 555 729.19 l S BT /F3 1 Tf 9 0 0 9 57 734.8528 Tm (Table 1)Tj /F1 1 Tf 3.7991 0 TD (Impacts of birdwatching and some recommendations to minimize disturbance and maximize local involvement.)Tj /F5 1 Tf -3.7991 -1.6667 TD [(Positive impacts of birdwatching)-5383.2(Negative impacts of birdwatching)-5295.9(Recommendations for optimal )]TJ ET 0.5 w 57 705.6 m 555 705.6 l S BT 9 0 0 9 398.6 708.8528 Tm (birdwatching)Tj ET 0.667 w 57 489.02 m 555 489.02 l 57 487.69 m 555 487.69 l S Q endstream endobj 16 0 obj << /ProcSet [ /PDF /Text ] /Font << /F1 4 0 R /F3 6 0 R /F4 7 0 R /F5 17 0 R >> /ExtGState << /GS1 8 0 R >> >> endobj 17 0 obj << /Type /Font /Subtype /Type1 /FirstChar 32 /LastChar 119 /Widths [ 235 365 417 667 458 885 938 198 448 448 469 667 260 365 260 479 469 469 469 469 469 469 469 469 469 469 313 313 667 667 667 417 917 667 667 729 781 625 604 729 781 417 521 729 625 917 781 729 677 729 719 604 646 781 698 906 760 729 625 448 479 448 583 500 333 521 469 396 521 417 333 438 521 313 302 521 313 781 521 469 500 469 375 344 344 521 469 677 ] /Encoding /WinAnsiEncoding /BaseFont /EIHNGA+EhrhardtMT-SemiBoldItalic /FontDescriptor 41 0 R >> endobj 18 0 obj << /Type /Page /Parent 9 0 R /Resources 20 0 R /Contents 19 0 R /Thumb 57 0 R >> endobj 19 0 obj << /Length 8907 >> stream q 0.2 i 0 810 613 -812 re 0 810 m W n 0.03 810.03 595.02 -810 re W n BT /F1 1 Tf 10 0 0 10 57.2756 734.1689 Tm 0 0 0 1 k /GS1 gs 0 Tc 0.0137 Tw (of�cial protection. Birds do not pay attention to park bound-)Tj 0 -1.2 TD -0.0064 Tw (aries and many species can only be observed outside of�cially)Tj T* 0.0301 Tw (protected areas. It is not uncommon to �nd rare bird species)Tj T* -0.0102 Tw (surviving in small forest remnants, and the constant presence)Tj T* 0.342 Tw (of birdwatchers and associated income may create local)Tj T* 0.4283 Tw (incentives to protect these small patches from further)Tj T* -0.0271 Tw (destruction. There is also a growing number of private nature)Tj T* 0.1336 Tw (reserves, such as Rara Avis and Monteverde in Costa Rica)Tj T* 0.2317 Tw ($Dworetzky 1992; Aylward )Tj /F4 1 Tf 11.6002 0 TD (et al)Tj /F1 1 Tf 1.8527 0 TD (. 1996$, where good bird)Tj -13.453 -1.2 TD 0.1018 Tw (habitat is protected in order to obtain income from visiting)Tj T* 0.0235 Tw (birdwatchers, as well as from other ecotourists.)Tj /F4 1 Tf 0 -2.4 TD (Birdwatching guides)Tj /F1 1 Tf 0 -1.2 TD 0.0081 Tw (A knowledgeable guide is key to the success of any organized)Tj T* 0.2006 Tw (birdwatching trip, and for independent birdwatchers with)Tj T* 0.1945 Tw (high expectations, hiring a local guide is highly bene�cial)Tj T* 0.1219 Tw (because it increases the chances of seeing the less common)Tj T* 0.318 Tw (and local species, contributes to the local economy and)Tj T* 0.4079 Tw (creates an incentive to protect birds. For example, in)Tj T* 0.1165 Tw (Sivrikaya, Turkey, Mustafa Sari maintains a chain across a)Tj T* -0.0311 Tw (dirt road to prevent illegal hunters from driving to the remote)Tj T* 0.0458 Tw (leks of Caucasian grouse $)Tj /F4 1 Tf 10.3134 0 TD 0.0457 Tw (Tetrao mlokosiewiczi)Tj /F1 1 Tf 7.9388 0 TD 0.0458 Tw ($, a potentially)Tj -18.2522 -1.2 TD -0.0331 Tw (threatened species $BirdLife International 2000$ and his main)Tj T* 0.0235 Tw (source of income.)Tj 1.2 -1.2 TD 0.0248 Tw (In many places, indigenous people lack the education and)Tj -1.2 -1.2 TD 0.0515 Tw (essential �nancial resources required to invest in ecotourism)Tj T* 0.1425 Tw (and they usually qualify for the most menial and low-paid)Tj T* 0.2686 Tw (jobs $King & Stewart 1996$. Guiding for bird watchers,)Tj T* 0.0107 Tw (however, is less demanding, better paid, values knowledge of)Tj T* 0.0209 Tw (natural history and has minimal language requirements. The)Tj T* 0.0712 Tw (names of local bird species comprise the only English many)Tj T* 0.3494 Tw (successful guides speak. Although knowledge of natural)Tj T* 0.0443 Tw (history was crucial to many indigenous communities around)Tj T* 0.0064 Tw (the world, the dependence on market economies has resulted)Tj T* -0.0154 Tw (in the disappearance of this knowledge from many areas. The)Tj T* -0.0028 Tw (incentive to earn income as a birdwatching guide may restore)Tj T* 0.0234 Tw (this knowledge into native communities. Many birdwatchers)Tj T* 0.0652 Tw (do prefer guides who speak the birdwatchers� language and,)Tj T* 0.0688 Tw (as a result, expatriate guides $who may also be more knowl-)Tj T* 0.0912 Tw (edgeable$ may be preferred to local guides. However, using)Tj T* 0.2301 Tw (local guides whenever possible often delivers the greatest)Tj T* -0.0041 Tw (number of bird species for the money, as well as contributing)Tj T* 0.0235 Tw (to the local community.)Tj 1.2 -1.2 TD 0.5896 Tw (Birdwatching companies, non-governmental organiz-)Tj -1.2 -1.2 TD 0.0524 Tw (ations $NGOs$ and ornithologists working in less-developed)Tj T* 0.2799 Tw (countries can promote ecotourism and conservation with)Tj T* 0.098 Tw (guide-training programmes. For example, a project to train)Tj T* 0.0707 Tw (rural residents as nature guides in Costa Rica has been very)Tj T* 0.2066 Tw (successful $Paaby )Tj /F4 1 Tf 7.5103 0 TD (et al)Tj /F1 1 Tf 1.8277 0 TD (. 1991$. Out of 22 graduates inter-)Tj -9.338 -1.2 TD 0.2844 Tw (viewed after 5 months, six had become full-time nature)Tj T* 0.0388 Tw (guides and 16 had become part-time nature guides, hired by)Tj T* 0.1023 Tw (national parks, research stations and private tour operators.)Tj T* 0.2035 Tw (Such training programmes can supply �eld assistants and)Tj T* 0.3289 Tw (birdwatching guides, and can provide local employment)Tj T* 0.0235 Tw (while increasing environmental awareness.)Tj /F3 1 Tf 25.8 64.8 TD 0 Tw (Problems with birdwatching)Tj /F4 1 Tf 0 -2.35 TD 0.0235 Tw (Disturbing birds)Tj /F1 1 Tf 0 -1.2 TD 0.0798 Tw (The high expectations of many birdwatchers are not always)Tj T* 0.0502 Tw (bene�cial and the excessive zeal of some birdwatchers to see)Tj T* 0.3282 Tw (or photograph certain species may have harmful conse-)Tj T* 0.1919 Tw (quences. A review of 27 studies on the effects of wildlife)Tj T* 0.3144 Tw (observation and photography on birds reported negative)Tj T* 0.0506 Tw (effects on birds in 19 of the studies $Boyle & Samson 1985$,)Tj T* 0.003 Tw (even though most of these may be due to photography rather)Tj T* 0.1578 Tw (than birdwatching $Klein 1993; Tershy )Tj /F4 1 Tf 16.4864 0 TD (et al)Tj /F1 1 Tf 1.7789 0 TD (. 1997$. Here,)Tj -18.2652 -1.2 TD 0.052 Tw (�disturbance� mainly refers to intrusion and excludes habitat)Tj T* 0 Tw (modi�cation.)Tj 1.2 -1.2 TD 0.2767 Tw (Unfortunately, there are few well-designed, long-term)Tj -1.2 -1.2 TD 0.0197 Tw (studies of bird disturbance by birdwatchers and other nature)Tj T* 0.0515 Tw (observers $Hill )Tj /F4 1 Tf 6.1792 0 TD (et al)Tj /F1 1 Tf 1.6726 0 TD (. 1997$ and the data are from fewer than)Tj -7.8519 -1.2 TD 0.1502 Tw (100, mostly temperate species, obtained mainly during the)Tj T* 0.3846 Tw (breeding period $Cooke 1980; Boyle & Sampson 1985;)Tj T* 0 Tw (Holmes )Tj /F4 1 Tf 3.3913 0 TD 0.0832 Tw (et al)Tj /F1 1 Tf 1.7043 0 TD (. 1993; Klein 1993; Knight & Gutzwiller 1995;)Tj -5.0956 -1.2 TD 0 Tw (Fern�ndez-Juricic )Tj /F4 1 Tf 7.735 0 TD 0.3199 Tw (et al)Tj /F1 1 Tf 1.941 0 TD (. 2001$. Well-designed, long-term)Tj -9.676 -1.2 TD 0.2278 Tw (studies are sorely needed, especially in the tropics where)Tj T* -0.0066 Tw (there has been almost no published bird disturbance research)Tj T* 0 Tw ($Groom )Tj /F4 1 Tf 3.5688 0 TD 0.1557 Tw (et al)Tj /F1 1 Tf 1.7768 0 TD (. 1991; Burger & Gochfeld 1993$. Impacts of)Tj -5.3455 -1.2 TD 0.1549 Tw (disturbance are complex, with responses differing between)Tj T* 0.1473 Tw (species, between individuals of the same species, and even)Tj T* 0.7074 Tw (between different periods for the same individuals)Tj T* 0.5566 Tw ($HaySmith & Hunt 1995; Knight & Temple 1995$.)Tj T* 0.0526 Tw (Nevertheless, I provide some recommendations to minimize)Tj T* 0.3108 Tw (disturbance by birdwatchers, based on the patterns that)Tj T* 0.0235 Tw (emerge from the data available $Table 1$.)Tj 1.2 -1.2 TD 0.0851 Tw (The majority of the birds studied were most sensitive to)Tj -1.2 -1.2 TD 0.3371 Tw (disturbance during the breeding period $G�tmark 1992;)Tj T* 0.181 Tw (Knight & Cole 1995$. Human presence around bird nests)Tj T* 0.0548 Tw (increased nest abandonment and egg loss due to nest preda-)Tj T* 0.7333 Tw (tors $HaySmith & Hunt 1995; Hanson 2000$, so)Tj T* 0.0282 Tw (birdwatching activity should be minimized around nests and)Tj T* 0.2986 Tw (young, especially around nesting colonies, which can be)Tj T* 0.1235 Tw (deserted as the consequence of the disturbance induced by)Tj T* 0.1247 Tw (just one person $Larson 1995$. However, when visitors are)Tj T* 0.1202 Tw (concentrated in a small part of albatross and penguin alba-)Tj T* -0.0037 Tw (tross breeding colonies, nesting birds habituate to people and)Tj T* 0.1255 Tw (do not respond to human presence as a stressor $Burger &)Tj T* 0.062 Tw (Gochfeld 1999; Fowler 1999$. Many birdwatchers play calls)Tj T* 0.1396 Tw (of secretive species to lure them out of their hiding places)Tj T* -0.0208 Tw (and, during the breeding period, this may stress birds, as well)Tj T* 0.2329 Tw (as leave nests exposed to predators. There have been no)Tj T* 0.0781 Tw (studies on the effects of tapes on birds and this should be a)Tj T* 0.0235 Tw (research priority of bird disturbance researchers.)Tj 1.2 -1.2 TD 0.1977 Tw (Even outside the breeding period, birdwatchers should)Tj -1.2 -1.2 TD 0.0681 Tw (minimize �ushing of birds, since this has high physiological)Tj T* 0.0009 Tw (costs for many species $Gabrielsen & Smith 1995$ and can be)Tj T* 0.0837 Tw (fatal to birds during times of food shortage $Knight & Cole)Tj T* 0.1978 Tw (1995$. Minimizing bird disturbance and �ushing will also)Tj T* 0.1151 Tw (improve the quality of birdwatching and may increase bird)Tj T* 0.8869 Tw (abundance and species richness $Gutzwiller 1995;)Tj T* 0.5531 Tw (Fern�ndez-Juricic 2000$. Larger and more specialized)Tj /F4 1 Tf 9.0098 68.35 TD 0.0235 Tw (Birdwatching and conservation)Tj /F1 1 Tf 13.5831 0 TD 0 Tw (285)Tj ET Q endstream endobj 20 0 obj << /ProcSet [ /PDF /Text ] /Font << /F1 4 0 R /F3 6 0 R /F4 7 0 R >> /ExtGState << /GS1 8 0 R >> >> endobj 21 0 obj << /Type /Page /Parent 9 0 R /Resources 23 0 R /Contents 22 0 R /Thumb 59 0 R >> endobj 22 0 obj << /Length 9282 >> stream q 0.2 i 0 810 613 -812 re 0 810 m W n 0.03 810.03 595.02 -810 re W n BT /F1 1 Tf 10 0 0 10 58.276 734.1689 Tm 0 0 0 1 k /GS1 gs 0 Tc 0.1572 Tw (species, birds of prey, birds in groups, and birds far from)Tj 0 -1.2 TD -0.0116 Tw (vegetation cover tend to be �ushed more easily $Holmes )Tj /F4 1 Tf 22.1305 0 TD (et al.)Tj /F1 1 Tf -22.1305 -1.2 TD -0.0042 Tw (1993; Hill )Tj /F4 1 Tf 4.1588 0 TD (et al)Tj /F1 1 Tf 1.6169 0 TD (. 1997; Fern�ndez-Juricic )Tj /F4 1 Tf 10.2686 0 TD (et al)Tj /F1 1 Tf 1.6169 0 TD (. 2001$. Because)Tj -17.6612 -1.2 TD 0.0734 Tw (of the variations between species and individuals $Knight &)Tj T* 0.1792 Tw (Temple 1995$, the alert distance, which is the distance at)Tj T* 0.1751 Tw (which a bird becomes aware of the observer$s$, should be)Tj T* 0.0836 Tw (used as the minimum approach distance $Fern�ndez-Juricic)Tj /F4 1 Tf T* 0.0235 Tw (et al)Tj /F1 1 Tf 1.6446 0 TD (. 2001$.)Tj -0.4446 -1.2 TD 0.0966 Tw (Birds are less sensitive if they are visually shielded from)Tj -1.2 -1.2 TD 0.0855 Tw (observers $Knight & Temple 1995$, so birdwatchers should)Tj T* 0.0933 Tw (make use of inconspicuous clothing $Gutzwiller & Marcum)Tj T* 0.1046 Tw (1993$, blinds, vegetation and other ways to minimize being)Tj T* 0.0183 Tw (seen by birds $Larson 1995$. Birdwatching telescopes should)Tj T* 0.0074 Tw (be used whenever possible; even in tropical forests, these can)Tj T* 0.1212 Tw (be surprisingly effective and often provide superb views of)Tj T* 0.1188 Tw (perching birds $Munn 1992$ in addition to limiting distur-)Tj T* 0.3276 Tw (bance. In combination with inexpensive digital cameras,)Tj T* 0.2191 Tw (telescopes can also be used to obtain high-quality images)Tj T* 0.0235 Tw (from a safe distance $Ingraham 2001$.)Tj 1.2 -1.2 TD 0.078 Tw (If birds have to be approached, a slow approach from an)Tj -1.2 -1.2 TD -0.0166 Tw (oblique angle is preferable $Knight & Cole 1995$ and they are)Tj T* 0.0834 Tw (more tolerant of vehicle approaches than people $Holmes )Tj /F4 1 Tf 23.343 0 TD 0 Tw (et)Tj -23.343 -1.2 TD (al)Tj /F1 1 Tf 0.729 0 TD 0.1427 Tw (. 1993$. Since birds are highly sensitive to noise and the)Tj -0.729 -1.2 TD 0.1116 Tw (number of people $Knight & Cole 1995$, groups should be)Tj T* 0.0356 Tw (kept small, preferably under 10 people. Birds that come into)Tj T* -0.0112 Tw (contact with people more frequently are more habituated and)Tj T* 0.2793 Tw (approachable, provided that they are not hunted $Cooke)Tj T* 0.0067 Tw (1980; Knight & Cole 1995$. Birdwatching in areas with some)Tj T* 0.1854 Tw (human traf�c, such as dirt roads, would minimize distur-)Tj T* 0.0235 Tw (bance of pristine areas and allow closer views of birds.)Tj 1.2 -1.2 TD 0.01 Tc 0 Tw [(Birdwatchers)-292.9(should)-292.9(be)-292.9(particularly)-292.9(careful)-292.9(with)-292.9(threat-)]TJ -1.2 -1.2 TD [(ened)-453.5(and)-453.5(near-threatened)-453.5(species)-453.5($BirdLife)-453.5(International)]TJ T* [(2000$.)-383.3(These)-383.3(species)-383.3(are)-383.3(usually)-383.3(more)-383.3(sensitive)-383.3(to)-383.3(people)]TJ T* [(because)-294.5(of)-294.5(their)-294.5(biology,)-294.5(increased)-294.5(exploitation)-294.5(and)-294.5(greater)]TJ T* [(disturbance)-1279.9(by)-1279.9(birdwatchers)-1279.9(seeking)-1279.9(them)-1279.9(out.)]TJ T* [(Birdwatchers)-493.8(should)-493.8(not)-493.8(contribute)-493.8(to)-493.8(the)-493.8(extinction)-493.8(of)]TJ T* [(threatened)-233.7(birds.)]TJ 1.2 -1.2 TD 0 Tc 0.0415 Tw (Guides also have an important role to play in minimizing)Tj -1.2 -1.2 TD -0.0304 Tw (disturbance of birds by birdwatchers. In fact, this makes good)Tj T* 0.0869 Tw (business sense, since the long-term presence of �staked-out�)Tj T* 0.2607 Tw (birds will increase a guide�s success rate and reputation.)Tj T* 0.0352 Tw (Unfortunately, some guides, especially those who are uncer-)Tj T* 0.033 Tw (ti�ed and uneducated, often contribute to the disturbance of)Tj T* 0.0328 Tw (wildlife $Groom )Tj /F4 1 Tf 6.6807 0 TD (et al)Tj /F1 1 Tf 1.6538 0 TD (. 1991$. Rigorous training, certi�cation,)Tj -8.3346 -1.2 TD 0.0946 Tw (and regulation of guides, especially in less-developed coun-)Tj T* 0.1499 Tw (tries, by governments and by birdwatching companies, are)Tj T* -0.012 Tw (integral to educating tourists and minimizing disturbance $de)Tj T* 0.0235 Tw (Groot 1983; HaySmith & Hunt 1995$.)Tj /F4 1 Tf 0 -2.4 TD (Indirect impacts)Tj /F1 1 Tf 0 -1.2 TD 0.0946 Tw (Because birdwatchers have high average incomes, they may)Tj T* 0.2419 Tw (demand more luxurious accommodation than the average)Tj T* 0.0652 Tw (ecotourist. This could potentially lead to increased environ-)Tj T* 0.1728 Tw (mental impact $HaySmith & Hunt 1995; Page & Dowling)Tj T* 0.3077 Tw (2002$ and transfer of pro�ts from local communities to)Tj T* 0.1129 Tw (foreigners and urban dwellers who are far more likely than)Tj 25.8 66 TD 0.498 Tw (rural residents to own luxury establishments in less-)Tj 0 -1.2 TD 0 Tw [(developed)-808.3(countries)-808.3($Ceballos-Lascur�in)-808.3(1996;)-808.3(Weaver)]TJ T* [(1998;)-719.6(Page)-719.6(&)-719.6(Dowling)-719.6(2002$.)-719.6(Local)-719.6(people)-719.6(who)-719.7(are)]TJ T* [(excluded)-310.9(from)-310.9(protected)-310.9(areas)-310.9(and)-310.9(who)-310.9(do)-310.9(not)-310.9(bene�t)-310.9(from)]TJ T* [(tourists)-497(are)-497(likely)-497(to)-497(resent)-497(them)-497(and)-497(resist)-497(conservation)]TJ T* [(policies.)-403.8(In)-403.8(addition,)-403.7(areas)-403.8(visited)-403.8(can)-403.8(be)-403.8(contaminated)-403.8(by)]TJ T* [(tourist)-483.9(waste,)-483.9(and)-483.9(construction)-483.9(of)-483.9(buildings)-483.9(and)-483.9(facilities)]TJ T* [(may)-452(result)-452(in)-452(habitat)-452(clearance)-452($HaySmith)-452(&)-452(Hunt)-452(1995;)]TJ T* [(Weaver)-313.6(1998$.)]TJ 1.2 -1.2 TD 0.0335 Tw (However, for many birdwatchers, birds take priority over)Tj -1.2 -1.2 TD -0.0117 Tw (comfort. Many will stay in basic local establishments in order)Tj T* 0.3779 Tw (to see the species of interest $Page & Dowling 2002$.)Tj T* 0.2456 Tw (Additionally, some luxury resorts attract birdwatchers by)Tj T* 0.5966 Tw (minimizing environmental impact, maintaining private)Tj T* 0.0575 Tw (reserves, and hiring local birdwatching guides. These estab-)Tj T* 0.1659 Tw (lishments are likely to bene�t the local communities more)Tj T* 0.1786 Tw (than lodges without a birdwatching focus. If birdwatchers)Tj T* 0.251 Tw (wish to aid local communities as much as possible, they)Tj T* 0.1532 Tw (should make an effort to frequent locally-owned establish-)Tj T* 0.0235 Tw (ments with environmentally sound practices.)Tj /F3 1 Tf 0 -3 TD 0 Tw (Overview of birdwatching impacts)Tj /F1 1 Tf 0 -1.8 TD 0.7047 Tw (Despite the potential for disturbance, birdwatching,)Tj 0 -1.2 TD 0.2269 Tw (especially if properly conducted, is far preferable to land)Tj T* -0.0231 Tw (clearing, hunting and other exploitative, unsustainable activi-)Tj T* 0.8082 Tw (ties. In addition, �citizen science� projects, where)Tj T* 0.0848 Tw (ornithological data are collected by dedicated amateur bird-)Tj T* 0.1176 Tw (watchers $for example, the Christmas bird counts that take)Tj T* 0.2361 Tw (place around Christmas and counts during breeding bird)Tj T* 0.5293 Tw (surveys$, can contribute substantially to ornithological)Tj T* 0.1052 Tw (knowledge, especially in tropical areas with few researchers)Tj T* 0 Tw ($Ehrlich )Tj /F4 1 Tf 3.7636 0 TD 0.2565 Tw (et al)Tj /F1 1 Tf 1.8776 0 TD (. 1988; Mason 1990; Cornell Laboratory of)Tj -5.6412 -1.2 TD 0.0222 Tw (Ornithology 2000$. Birdwatchers should always aim to mini-)Tj T* 0.5213 Tw (mize their negative impact on birds by adhering to)Tj T* 0.0355 Tw (established ethical guidelines $American Birding Association)Tj T* 0.3845 Tw (1997$, while contributing as much as possible to local)Tj T* 0.1197 Tw (economies. They should do so in the face of high expecta-)Tj T* 0.0251 Tw (tions of �nding species of interest and be particularly careful)Tj T* 0.2911 Tw (with threatened or near-threatened species. Birdwatchers)Tj T* 0.2475 Tw (should insist on certi�ed guides and should criticize any)Tj T* 0.4076 Tw (improper conduct of guides. Contributing to the local)Tj T* 0.2201 Tw (economy, educating local people, and minimizing wildlife)Tj T* 0.1395 Tw (disturbance will enable communities to preserve good bird)Tj T* 0.0088 Tw (habitat and will help ensure the continuous presence of birds)Tj T* 0.0235 Tw (to be watched.)Tj /F4 1 Tf 0 -2.4 TD (Independent birdwatcher versus birdwatching tour)Tj /F1 1 Tf 0 -1.2 TD 0.1678 Tw (Independent birdwatchers are more likely to contribute to)Tj T* 0.0615 Tw (low-budget local establishments and in a more even manner)Tj T* 0.1708 Tw (since, unlike tour groups, they frequent smaller and more)Tj T* -0.0232 Tw (modest establishments $Page & Dowling 1992$. Since they do)Tj T* 0.263 Tw (not bene�t from a tour guide, independent birdwatchers)Tj T* 0.0584 Tw (often hire local guides and are less likely to be isolated from)Tj T* 0.2247 Tw (the communities they are visiting. However, independent)Tj T* 0.0495 Tw (birdwatchers are usually not subject to monitoring by a bird)Tj -25.8 68.4 TD 0 Tw (286)Tj /F4 1 Tf 3.407 0 TD 0.0235 Tw (C.H. S)Tj 2.4096 -0.2 TD 0 Tw (.)Tj 0.36 0.2 TD (ekerciog)Tj 2.591 0 TD 0.05 Tc [(�l)50(u)]TJ ET Q endstream endobj 23 0 obj << /ProcSet [ /PDF /Text ] /Font << /F1 4 0 R /F3 6 0 R /F4 7 0 R >> /ExtGState << /GS1 8 0 R >> >> endobj 24 0 obj << /Type /Page /Parent 9 0 R /Resources 26 0 R /Contents 25 0 R /Thumb 61 0 R >> endobj 25 0 obj << /Length 8392 >> stream q 0.2 i 0 810 613 -812 re 0 810 m W n 0.03 810.03 595.02 -810 re W n BT /F1 1 Tf 10 0 0 10 57.2756 734.1689 Tm 0 0 0 1 k /GS1 gs 0 Tc -0.0289 Tw (guide who is trained in low-impact practices. As a result, they)Tj 0 -1.2 TD 0.0235 Tw (may be more likely to disturb birds.)Tj 1.2 -1.2 TD 0.3621 Tw (Birdwatching tours $especially those originating from)Tj -1.2 -1.2 TD 0.5347 Tw (more-developed countries$, although signi�cantly more)Tj T* 0.2041 Tw (expensive than independent birdwatching, may contribute)Tj T* 0.3964 Tw (less to local economies than independent birdwatchers.)Tj T* 0.0126 Tw (These tours have their own guides and often make use of the)Tj T* 0.2701 Tw (best operations and accommodations available, which are)Tj T* 0.1927 Tw (likely to be owned either by foreigners or the urban elite)Tj T* 0.2229 Tw ($Weaver 1998$. Nevertheless, it is important not to draw)Tj T* 0.3775 Tw (hasty conclusions about economic leakage due to bird-)Tj T* 0.796 Tw (watching companies, since data on the kinds of)Tj T* 0.3787 Tw (establishments birdwatching tours use in less-developed)Tj T* 0.0468 Tw (countries are sparse and there are exceptions to this pattern.)Tj T* -0.035 Tw (In addition, when they make use of a local establishment, tour)Tj T* 0.4504 Tw (companies are likely to contribute signi�cantly greater)Tj T* 0.1292 Tw (amounts per birdwatcher to the local economy. Many tour)Tj T* 0.2072 Tw (companies also hire local guides, and such companies are)Tj T* 0.3585 Tw (likely to pay signi�cantly more than independent bird-)Tj T* 0 Tw (watchers.)Tj 1.2 -1.2 TD 0.121 Tw (Not only should these companies perceive a moral obli-)Tj -1.2 -1.2 TD 0.4003 Tw (gation to contribute to the conservation efforts of the)Tj T* 0.04 Tw (less-developed countries in which they operate, but it is also)Tj T* 0.1254 Tw (in their long-term interest to create �nancial incentives for)Tj T* 0.2518 Tw (conservation. Only one of the top six international bird-)Tj T* 0.0996 Tw (watching companies $Birding.com 2001$ made any mention)Tj T* 0.3261 Tw (of conservation on its web page in 2001 and only this)Tj T* 0.2138 Tw (company seems to have made any direct contributions to)Tj T* 0.0235 Tw (conservation, as cited in the relevant literature $Boo 1990$.)Tj /F3 1 Tf 0 -3.4 TD 0 Tw (SUGGESTIONS FOR IMPROVING THE)Tj 0 -1.2 TD (CONSERVATION VALUE OF BIRDWATCHING)Tj 0 -2 TD (Research, promotion and education)Tj /F1 1 Tf 0 -1.8 TD 0.1918 Tw (Overall, there is a pressing need for data on the �nancial)Tj 0 -1.2 TD 0.3147 Tw (contributions and environmental impacts of independent)Tj T* 0.0631 Tw (birdwatchers and tour companies focusing on birdwatching,)Tj T* 0.2884 Tw (especially in less-developed countries $Kerlinger & Brett)Tj T* 0.2142 Tw (1995$. Financial data on birdwatching would increase the)Tj T* 0.3646 Tw (likelihood of tourism ministries becoming aware of the)Tj T* 0.0461 Tw (potential bene�ts of organizing and promoting birdwatching)Tj T* 0.1262 Tw (in their countries. Even in well-known birdwatching desti-)Tj T* 0.1653 Tw (nations such as Ecuador, promoters of tourism know very)Tj T* 0.1179 Tw (little about birdwatching possibilities in their country. The)Tj T* 0.0837 Tw (fact that Costa Rica, a small Central American country that)Tj T* 0.2854 Tw (has distinguished itself by emphasizing conservation and)Tj T* 0.0345 Tw [(ecotourism, was estimated to generate US$)-165(410 million from)]TJ T* 0.4339 Tw (birdwatching in one year $R. Arias de Para, personal)Tj T* 0.2672 Tw (communication 2001$ should be enough to convince any)Tj T* 0.0235 Tw (country of the �nancial signi�cance of birdwatching.)Tj 1.2 -1.2 TD 0.0817 Tw (With additional information on the monetary �ows from)Tj -1.2 -1.2 TD 0.1772 Tw (different kinds of birdwatching tourism, the promotion of)Tj T* 0.1117 Tw (this industry can also be enhanced. For example, one good)Tj T* 0.0183 Tw (way to promote birdwatching and create revenues is through)Tj T* -0.0257 Tw (the organization of birdwatching festivals. There are over 240)Tj 25.8 66 TD 0.1558 Tw (bird-related festivals in the USA, bringing millions of US)Tj 0 -1.2 TD 0.0878 Tw (dollars to many small towns in 47 states $Kerlinger & Brett)Tj T* 0.3593 Tw (1995; DiGregorio 2002$. There are, however, very few)Tj T* 0.1532 Tw (examples of birdwatching festivals in less-developed coun-)Tj T* 0.202 Tw (tries $BirdLife International 2001)Tj /F4 1 Tf 13.7704 0 TD 0 Tw (a)Tj /F1 1 Tf 0.469 0 TD 0.202 Tw ($. The creation of such)Tj -14.2394 -1.2 TD 0.2543 Tw (festivals could increase earnings, as well as educate local)Tj T* 0.1058 Tw (people about the importance of birds, conservation and the)Tj T* 0.041 Tw (potential of birdwatching as an alternative source of income.)Tj T* 0.1838 Tw (Another possibility is to donate some of the income from)Tj T* 0.1515 Tw (birdwatching festivals in more developed countries to bird)Tj T* 0.1476 Tw (conservation programmes in less developed countries. One)Tj T* 0.2827 Tw (successful example is the British Birdwatching Fair that)Tj T* 0.22 Tw (raises funds for tropical conservation and has raised over )Tj T* 0.0192 Tw [(US$)-165(190)-165(000 in 2000 to protect threatened Cuban wilderness)]TJ T* 0.0235 Tw ($BirdLife International 2001)Tj /F4 1 Tf 11.2572 0 TD 0 Tw (b)Tj /F1 1 Tf 0.417 0 TD ($.)Tj -10.4742 -1.2 TD -0.0025 Tw (It is also essential to educate the governments, companies,)Tj -1.2 -1.2 TD 0.1296 Tw (and individuals interested in birdwatching on the potential)Tj T* 0.1252 Tw (negative environmental impacts of birdwatching, as well as)Tj T* 0.1734 Tw (on ways to minimize these. Not only this is an important)Tj T* 0.2688 Tw (conservation priority, it is also integral to the long-term)Tj T* 0.0235 Tw (success of birdwatching tourism.)Tj /F3 1 Tf 0 -3 TD 0 Tw (Tour companies)Tj /F1 1 Tf 0 -1.8 TD 0.5509 Tw (Birdwatching companies should be more involved in)Tj 0 -1.2 TD 0.5666 Tw (promoting and supporting conservation at their tour)Tj T* 0.4877 Tw (destinations, possibly by making contributions directly)Tj T* 0.0034 Tw (related to the number of species seen on their trips. This will)Tj T* 0.4539 Tw (have signi�cant �nancial and symbolic value for local)Tj T* 0.1786 Tw (communities and will provide publicity for the companies)Tj T* 0.1049 Tw [(involved. For example, they might contribute US$)-165(1 to the)]TJ T* 0.0949 Tw (local partner of BirdLife International or another conserva-)Tj T* 0.2189 Tw (tion NGO for each species seen by each participant of a)Tj T* 0.1151 Tw (birdwatching tour, and promote this in their advertising to)Tj T* 0.3394 Tw (prospective clients. Substantially greater sums might be)Tj T* 0.1543 Tw [(donated for each threatened species $for example, US$)-165(20$)]TJ T* 0.0665 Tw [(and for each near-threatened species $for example, US$)-165(10$,)]TJ T* 0.0667 Tw (which would mean more funds for countries with species at)Tj T* 0 Tw (risk.)Tj 1.2 -1.2 TD 0.0195 Tw (I analysed the prices of 272 birdwatching tours to 62 less-)Tj -1.2 -1.2 TD 0.0588 Tw (developed countries included in the online catalogues of the)Tj T* 0.1503 Tw (top six international birdwatching companies $Birding.com)Tj T* 0.0145 Tw (2001$. The tour prices did not include the prices of �ights to)Tj T* 0.1263 Tw (the tour destinations, and botanical tours, ship-based tours)Tj T* 0.1252 Tw (and trekking tours were excluded from the analysis. Given)Tj T* 0.0244 Tw (the fact that the average tour of one of the top six companies)Tj T* 0.1349 Tw [(has 12.12 clients, runs for 15.18 days, costs US$)-165(264.4 per)]TJ T* 0.0678 Tw (day, and that the maximum number of species seen per day)Tj T* 0.0782 Tw [(for trips over a week is 10)-51.5(�)-51.5(25 in most countries, US$)-165(1 per)]TJ T* -0.0229 Tw (species per observer would amount to a modest price increase)Tj T* 0.0278 Tw [(of 3.8)-51.5(�)-51.5(9.5% per trip participant. For example, after a three-)]TJ T* 0.0834 Tw (week birdwatching tour in Kenya during which 517 species)Tj T* 0.0715 Tw (were observed by 12 people, the company would contribute)Tj T* 0.1099 Tw [(US$)-165(6204 to a Kenyan NGO involved in bird conservation)]TJ T* 0.3553 Tw [(while charging the clients a total of about US$)-165(66)-165(500.)]TJ T* 0.0873 Tw (Independent birdwatchers should also try to contribute 5%)Tj /F4 1 Tf 9.0098 68.4 TD 0.0235 Tw (Birdwatching and conservation)Tj /F1 1 Tf 13.5831 0 TD 0 Tw (287)Tj ET Q endstream endobj 26 0 obj << /ProcSet [ /PDF /Text ] /Font << /F1 4 0 R /F3 6 0 R /F4 7 0 R >> /ExtGState << /GS1 8 0 R >> >> endobj 27 0 obj << /Type /Page /Parent 9 0 R /Resources 29 0 R /Contents 28 0 R /Thumb 63 0 R >> endobj 28 0 obj << /Length 10677 >> stream q 0.2 i 0 810 613 -812 re 0 810 m W n 0.03 810.03 595.02 -810 re W n BT /F1 1 Tf 10 0 0 10 58.276 734.1689 Tm 0 0 0 1 k /GS1 gs 0 Tc 0.0085 Tw (of their trip budget $excluding airfare to the country$ to local)Tj 0 -1.2 TD 0.0235 Tw (bird conservation NGOs.)Tj 1.2 -1.2 TD 0.4919 Tw (When properly conducted, tourism-revenue sharing,)Tj -1.2 -1.2 TD 0.4192 Tw (although marginal for the companies and birdwatchers)Tj T* 0.2253 Tw (involved, can add up to signi�cant amounts for the less-)Tj T* 0.0425 Tw (developed countries visited, show a one-to-one link between)Tj T* 0.0693 Tw (biodiversity and income, increase local support of conserva-)Tj T* 0.5542 Tw (tion $Archabald & Naughton-Treves 2001$, and give)Tj T* 0.1188 Tw (competitive advantages to the tour companies who demon-)Tj T* 0.3043 Tw (strate their environmental concerns. International NGOs)Tj T* 0.5264 Tw (that undertake ecotourism research, such as BirdLife)Tj T* 0.3109 Tw (International, Conservation International, and the World)Tj T* 0.2409 Tw (Conservation Union $IUCN$, can work with major bird-)Tj T* 0.1872 Tw (watching companies to increase the contributions of these)Tj T* -0.008 Tw (companies to the local economies of the places that they visit.)Tj T* 0.2256 Tw (In exchange, these NGOs can certify the companies that)Tj T* 0.1205 Tw (make signi�cant contributions to community-based conser-)Tj T* 0.1834 Tw (vation. Certi�cation would provide bene�cial publicity for)Tj T* 0.0235 Tw (the companies involved, pro�ting both sides.)Tj /F3 1 Tf 0 -2.9 TD 0 Tw (CONCLUSIONS)Tj /F1 1 Tf 0 -1.7 TD 0.3063 Tw (Birdwatching is a most promising branch of ecotourism)Tj 0 -1.2 TD 0.0104 Tw (because birdwatchers comprise a large and increasing pool of)Tj T* -0.0116 Tw (educated and wealthy individuals who desire to observe birds)Tj T* 0.1466 Tw (in their native habitats and whose activities have relatively)Tj T* 0.6364 Tw (low environmental impact. Among various kinds of)Tj T* 0.5097 Tw (ecotourism, birdwatching has the highest potential to)Tj T* 0.2367 Tw (contribute to local communities, educate locals about the)Tj T* 0.0228 Tw (value of biodiversity, and create local and national incentives)Tj T* 0.1513 Tw (for successful protection and preservation of natural areas.)Tj T* 0.0575 Tw (The governments of less-developed nations, local and inter-)Tj T* 0.2354 Tw (national NGOs, and birdwatching companies should give)Tj T* 0.2317 Tw (priority to birdwatching promotion and education. These)Tj T* 0.0919 Tw (organizations should also strive to increase the contribution)Tj T* 0.1903 Tw (of birdwatching to rural communities and local grass-root)Tj T* -0.0148 Tw (organizations since birdwatching has a signi�cant potential to)Tj T* 0.1826 Tw (generate income through the protection and promotion of)Tj T* 0.0235 Tw (natural areas.)Tj /F3 1 Tf 0 -2.9 TD 0 Tw (ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS)Tj /F1 1 Tf 0 -1.7 TD 0.3013 Tc (Ia)Tj 1.0713 0 TD (m)Tj 1.0823 0 TD 0.01 Tc [(grateful)-291.3(to)-291.3(Thomas)-291.3(Brokaw,)-291.3(Walter)-291.3(Loewenstern)-291.3(and)]TJ -2.1536 -1.2 TD [(Ward)-241.1(Wilson)-241.1(Woods)-241.1(Jr)-241.1(for)-241.1(supporting)-241.1(my)-241.1(research.)-241.1(I)-241(thank)]TJ T* [(Carol)-211.3(Boggs,)-211.3(Gretchen)-211.4(Daily,)-211.4(Paul)-211.3(Ehrlich,)-211.4(Jessica)-211.4(Hellman)]TJ T* [(and)-352.1(two)-352.1(anonymous)-352.1(reviewers)-352.1(for)-352.1(their)-352.1(helpful)-352.1(comments)]TJ T* [(regarding)-626.4(this)-626.3(manuscript.)-626.4(I)-626.3(a)0(m)-626.3(especially)-626.4(grateful)-626.4(to)]TJ T* [(Amanda)-497.8(Stronza,)-497.8(whose)-497.8(valuable)-497.8(course)-497.8(on)-497.8(the)-497.8(anthro-)]TJ T* [(pology)-589.6(of)-589.5(tourism)-589.6(provided)-589.6(the)-589.5(final)-589.5(impetus)-589.6(for)-589.5(this)]TJ T* (review.)Tj /F3 1 Tf 0 -3 TD 0 Tc (References)Tj /F1 1 Tf 9 0 0 9 58.276 103.1689 Tm 0.2484 Tw (American Birding Association $1994$ ABA Membership Survey)Tj 0.8889 -1.2222 TD 1.1489 Tw ([www document]. Accessed 12 June 2001. URL)Tj T* 0 Tw (http://208.56.18.90/programs/consecond1.htm)Tj 27.7778 72.6315 TD 0.9477 Tw (American Birding Association $1997$ American Birding)Tj 0.8889 -1.2222 TD 0.3057 Tw (Association�s Principles of Birding Ethics. [www document].)Tj T* 0.4907 Tw (Accessed 12 June 2001. URL http://americanbirding.org/)Tj T* 0 Tw (abaethics.htm)Tj -0.8889 -1.2222 TD 0.2226 Tw (Archabald, K. & Naughton-Treves, L. $2001$ Tourism revenue)Tj 0.8889 -1.2222 TD -0.0065 Tw (sharing around national parks in Western Uganda: early efforts to)Tj T* 0.9161 Tw (identify and reward local communities. )Tj /F4 1 Tf 20.2028 0 TD 0 Tw (Environmental)Tj -20.2028 -1.2222 TD (Conservation)Tj /F3 1 Tf 5.1776 0 TD (28)Tj /F1 1 Tf 0.938 0 TD 0.0235 Tw [($2$: 135)-51.5(�)-51.5(149.)]TJ -7.0044 -1.2222 TD 0.0296 Tw (Aylward, B., Allen, K., Echeverria, J. & Tosi, J. $1996$ Sustainable)Tj 0.8889 -1.2222 TD -0.0291 Tw (ecotourism in Costa Rica: the Monteverde Cloud Forest Preserve.)Tj /F4 1 Tf T* 0.0235 Tw (Biodiversity and Conservation)Tj /F3 1 Tf 11.6128 0 TD 0 Tw (5)Tj /F1 1 Tf 0.469 0 TD 0.0235 Tw [(: 315)-51.5(�)-51.5(343.)]TJ -12.9707 -1.2222 TD 0.0333 Tw (Birding.com $2001$ Tours and lodging [www document]. Accessed)Tj 0.8889 -1.2222 TD 1.3241 Tw (8 November 2001. 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URL: https://web.stanford.edu/~cagan/SekerciogluOrniTourismEnvCons2002.pdf

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