Psalm 40:7–9 (= 40:7–9 in the Vulgate) is quoted in Hebrews 10:5–10, yet the New Testament citati... more Psalm 40:7–9 (= 40:7–9 in the Vulgate) is quoted in Hebrews 10:5–10, yet the New Testament citation diverges markedly from the Old Testament text. How did early modern scholars account for this discrepancy? This article examines the responses of three sixteenth–seventeenth-century Latin Christian scholars – Martin Bucer, Robert Bellarmine, and Solomon Glassius – each of whom possessed strong Hebrew competence and serious interest in textual criticism. None was prepared to question the authority of the New Testament wording, and none dismissed the integrity of the preserved Hebrew text. Their explanations of the differences among the textual witnesses reveal distinctive configurations of critical method and confessional commitment. Together, their treatments illustrate how early modern exegetes wrestled with the interplay of philology, theology, and emerging text-critical awareness.
The Forerunners and Heirs of Origen’s Hexapla: The Proceedings of the Inaugural Colloquium of the Phoenix Seminary Text & Canon Institute, 2024
Jerome is an important source of information about the Hexapla and the hexaplaric versions. Jerom... more Jerome is an important source of information about the Hexapla and the hexaplaric versions. Jerome's Epistle 106, which is actually a 9,300-word treatise in defense of the "Gallican Psalter" (i. e., the standard Vulgate Psalter), provides ample material on the hexaplaric Septuagint, the other hexaplaric translations of the Psalms, and the critical signs that were found in copies of the hexaplaric edition of the Septuagint. A central argument in Epistle 106 is that criticisms levelled against Jerome's translation are based on a faulty, "popular" Greek text ("Lucianic"). At the beginning of Epistle 106, Jerome confidently declares the hexaplaric Septuagint to be equivalent to the Hebrew, but by the end of the treatise he has come to recognize meaningful differences between the hexaplaric Septuagint and the Hebrew text. Aquila, Symmachus, Theodotion, Quinta, and Sexta are cited frequently in Epistle 106, typically to support the Gallican Psalter, and sometimes to clarify the meaning of a Hebrew word. Jerome discusses the asteriskos and obelos as they appeared in Greek manuscripts and as he employed them in his own translation. Jerome's use of hexaplaric evidence provides a fascinating window into the text of the Psalms in the late fourth century, and the textual evidence he reports is highly significant.
From Moses to the Daughters of Zelophehad: Patristic Reception of Biblical Characters and Texts, 2025
Jerome's Epistle 106 is best known for its detailed discussion of text-critical issues, but this ... more Jerome's Epistle 106 is best known for its detailed discussion of text-critical issues, but this essay offers an account of spiritual exegesis in Epistle 106 that shows how Jerome combines text-critical and spiritual concerns in this treatise.
Jerome's principles and practice of translating the Bible are described within the context of tra... more Jerome's principles and practice of translating the Bible are described within the context of translation in late antiquity, both in the classical tradition and in the tradition of translating sacred texts.
The book of Jeremiah contains many passages condemning the people of Judah for their sins, includ... more The book of Jeremiah contains many passages condemning the people of Judah for their sins, including acts of injustice. The book also makes clear that God is punishing Judah through the coming Babylonian invasion. A theological problem that confronts the reader is that the violent actions of the Babylonian army do not correspond to the ideals of justice that are described elsewhere in the book. One solution to this problem is to find the theological significance of Jeremiah in the guidance it offers to those who have experienced any kind of communal or personal disaster, without reference to human culpability for sin. Without denying the legitimacy of this approach, this essay proposes a theological reading of Jeremiah that recognizes the gap between perfect divine justice and the horrific calamity that Babylon inflicted on Judah, and yet seeks to incorporate Jeremiah's rhetoric of human culpability into a coherent theological framework that speaks to matters of justice and injustice. It is suggested that the book of Jeremiah interpreted the Babylonian invasion typologically as a symbol of divine justice, but as with other forms of typology, the historical type and the spiritual reality did not perfectly correspond.
Greek Old Testament texts were being translated into Latin by the second century CE, with a compl... more Greek Old Testament texts were being translated into Latin by the second century CE, with a complete Old Latin version extant by the third century. Tertullian was aware of Latin translations but typically consulted the Greek directly. The Old Latin version underwent revisions and textual diversification in the third and fourth centuries, reflecting updates in style and adjustments based on evolving Greek texts. In 391–405 Jerome produced his Latin translations based on the Hebrew. Although he doubted the inspiration of the LXX and promoted the hebraica veritas, Jerome never ceased commenting on the LXX and sometimes acknowledged its traditional ecclesial status. In contrast, Augustine consistently affirmed the inspiration of the LXX, although he eventually recognised the value of the Hebrew. Over time the Old Latin version steadily lost ground to Jerome’s Hebrew version, although elements of the LXX were preserved in Latin through the deuterocanonical books and Jerome’s Gallican Psalter.
In four passages in the Qurʾan (Q 2:63, 93; 4:154; 7:171), reference is made to God raising up (o... more In four passages in the Qurʾan (Q 2:63, 93; 4:154; 7:171), reference is made to God raising up (or shaking) a mountain. In each passage, the context is God's covenant with Israel at Sinai, and the text appears to say that God lifted up Mt. Sinai over the people of Israel. A parallel to this motif appears in early rabbinic sources , including a tradition cited twice in the Babylonian Talmud (Shab 88a and AZ 2b), which suggests that God threatened to drop Mt. Sinai on Israel if they refused to accept the Torah. In both Talmud passages, the discussion that unfolds probes the topic of God's unique choice of Israel to receive the Torah. In its own allusions to the Sinai event, the Qurʾan seems to presume a background narrative similar to the tradition found in the Talmud, in that the Qurʾan's references to God raising up the mountain make best contextual sense as examples where God had to force Israel to accept their covenant. In the Qurʾan, the raising or shaking of the mountain represents one in a series of illustrations showing how the people were unwilling to believe and ultimately broke their covenant. The threat of the mountain also serves as a reminder that people should be on guard, in constant awareness of their accountability to God (taqwā). Moreover, the rhetoric surrounding the uplifted mountain theme in the Qurʾan emphasizes the univer-sality of God's command for all to believe, as if the Messenger of the Qurʾan was refuting an interpretation of the Sinai event that construed it as proof of Israel's election. For both the Talmud and the Qurʾan, each text's manner of handling the uplifted mountain motif reveals something about the community behind the text. The discussions we find in the Talmud about the uplifted mountain and Israel's election reflect the theological explorations we would expect to see in a developed religious culture lived out by a religious minority in an established empire. The Qurʾan's discourse, in contrast, seeks to destabilize Jewish and Christian concepts of election and deploys the uplifted mountain motif to emphasize everyone's need to show reverent awareness of God.
The Upraised Mountain and Israel’s Election in the Qur’an and Talmud
Comparative Islamic Studies
In four passages in the Qur’an (Q 2:63, 93; 4:154; 7:171), reference is made to God raising up (o... more In four passages in the Qur’an (Q 2:63, 93; 4:154; 7:171), reference is made to God raising up (or shaking) a mountain. In each passage, the context is God’s covenant with Israel at Sinai, and the text appears to say that God lifted up Mt. Sinai over the people of Israel. A parallel to this motif appears in early rabbinic sources, including a tradition cited twice in the Babylonian Talmud (Shab 88a and AZ 2b), which suggests that God threatened to drop Mt. Sinai on Israel if they refused to accept the Torah. In both Talmud passages, the discussion that unfolds probes the topic of God’s unique choice of Israel to receive the Torah. In its own allusions to the Sinai event, the Qur’an seems to presume a background narrative similar to the tradition found in the Talmud, in that the Qur’an’s references to God raising up the mountain make best contextual sense as examples where God had to force Israel to accept their covenant. In the Qur’an, the raising or shaking of the mountain represen...
John Wansbrough's scholarship on the Qurʾān has had a significant impact on Qurʾānic Studies over... more John Wansbrough's scholarship on the Qurʾān has had a significant impact on Qurʾānic Studies over the last forty years. His ideas continue to stimulate research into historical and literary dimensions of the Qurʾān, even though assessments vary greatly regarding the plausibility of some of his major ideas, and his subtle arguments can be difficult to follow. This essay clarifies and evaluates Wansbrough's thinking about the composition of the Qurʾān by elucidating the models from Biblical Studies that he appropriated. Detailed treatment is given to biblical form criticism and Wansbrough's application of this method to the qurʾānic accounts of the prophet Shuʿayb. It is suggested that Wansbrough's form-critical research yielded positive insights into the Qurʾān, but also left certain questions unanswered. It is then proposed that another model taken from Biblical Studies, the idea of a " rolling corpus " as developed in research on the book of Jeremiah, can sharpen and refine Wansbrough's conclusions.
Form Criticism or a Rolling Corpus: The Methodology of John Wansbrough Through the Lens of Biblical Studies
John Wansbrough’s scholarship on the Qurʾān has had a significant impact on Qurʾānic Studies over... more John Wansbrough’s scholarship on the Qurʾān has had a significant impact on Qurʾānic Studies over the last forty years. His ideas continue to stimulate research into historical and literary dimensions of the Qurʾān, even though assessments vary greatly regarding the plausibility of some of his major ideas, and his subtle arguments can be difficult to follow. This essay clarifies and evaluates Wansbrough’s thinking about the composition of the Qurʾān by elucidating the models from Biblical Studies that he appropriated. Detailed treatment is given to biblical form criticism and Wansbrough’s application of this method to the qurʾānic accounts of the prophet Shuʿayb. It is suggested that Wansbrough’s form-critical research yielded positive insights into the Qurʾān, but also left certain questions unanswered. It is then proposed that another model taken from Biblical Studies, the idea of a “rolling corpus” as developed in research on the book of Jeremiah, can sharpen and refine Wansbroug...
Like any form of interpretive writing but in its own distinctive way, rabbinic midrash functions ... more Like any form of interpretive writing but in its own distinctive way, rabbinic midrash functions both as a response to elements of the text (exegesis) and as a medium through which the interpreters speak to their own context (cultural expression). One notable feature of aggadic midrash is the practice of telling extrabiblical stories about biblical figures. Even the telling of these stories represents both exegesis and cultural expression, as seen in the presentation of Moses in midrash Exodus Rabbah. In non-rabbinic Jewish portrayals of Moses from the Greco-Roman world, Moses was often an important vehicle for the expression of the Jewish appropriation of cultural Hellenism. In the Mekhilta de Rabbi Ishmael, the figure of Moses is elaborated only modestly, but he is clearly depicted within the framework of rabbinic thought. Exodus Rabbah follows and develops the trajectory of the Mekhilta but also highlights features of Moses that were prominent in earlier sources in light of shared cultural experiences and their common text (that is, Exodus). In Exodus Rabbah, Moses is depicted through numerous aggadic tales as a rabbinic scholar of Torah and as the advocate who successfully mediates between Israel and God. Although these stories freely describe Moses in anachronistic terms as though he were a sage from the era of the rabbis, they also reflect genuine responses to actual points of tension and meaning in the text. This approach enabled the sages of the midrash to appreciate the meaningfulness of the text as they saw their own situations acted out in the text through Moses, although this came at the expense of recognizing fully the points of difference between the world of the text and the world of the interpreters.
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