VOOZH about

URL: https://www.nature.com/articles/352489a0?error=cookies_not_supported&code=09c60fe5-cb1a-4ca8-9ea2-f97e486c9c53

⇱ Making Mars habitable | Nature

Skip to main content

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

Abstract

Mars is believed to be lifeless, but it may be possible to transform it into a planet suitable for habitation by plants, and conceivably humans. The success of such an enterprise would depend on the abundance, distribution and form of materials on the planet that could provide carbon dioxide, water and nitrogen.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution

Access options

Subscribe to this journal

Receive 51 print issues and online access

$199.00 per year

only $3.90 per issue

Buy this article

  • Purchase on SpringerLink
  • Instant access to the full article PDF.

USD 39.95

Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Maddox, J. Nature 346, 311 (1990).

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  2. Joos, F., Sarmiento, J. L. & Siegenthaler, U. Nature 349, 772–775 (1991).

    Article  ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  3. McKay, C. P. (ed.) The Case for Mars II, Am. Astronaut. Soc. Sci. Technol. Ser. Vol. 62 (Univelt, San Diego, 1985).

  4. Stoker, C. R. (ed.) The Case for Mars III, Am. Astronaut. Soc. Sci. Technol. Ser. Vol. 74, 75 (Univelt, San Diego, 1985).

  5. McKay, C. P. & Stoker, C. R. Rev. Geophys. 27, 189–214 (1989).

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  6. Pollack, J. B., Kasting, J. F., Richardson, S. M. & Poliakoff, K. Icarus 71, 203–224 (1987).

    Article  ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. McKay, C. P. Adv. Space Res. 6, 269–285 (1986).

    Article  ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Averner, M. M. & MacElroy, R. D. (eds) On the Habitability of Mars, NASA SP-414 (US Government Printing Office, Washington DC, 1976).

  9. Burns, J. A. & Harwit, M. Icarus 19, 126–130 (1973).

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  10. Sagan, C. Icarus 20, 513–514 (1973).

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  11. Oberg, J. E. New Earths (Stackpole, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, 1981).

    Google Scholar 

  12. McKay, C. P. J. Brit. Interplanet. Soc. 35, 427–433 (1982).

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  13. Lovelock, J. E. & Allaby, M. The Greening of Mars (Warner, New York, 1984).

    Google Scholar 

  14. Fogg, M. J. J. Brit. interplanet. Soc. 42, 577–582 (1989).

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  15. Haynes, R. H. in Moral Expertise (ed. MacNiven, D.) 161–183 (Routledge, London, 1990).

    Google Scholar 

  16. McKay, C. P. in Moral Expertise (ed. MacNiven, D.) 184–197 (Routledge, London, 1990).

    Google Scholar 

  17. Dole, S. H. Habitable Planets for Man, 2nd edn (Elsevier, New York, 1970).

    Google Scholar 

  18. Bauer, J. A. & Martha, P. Z. Pflanzenphysiol. 103, 445–450 (1981).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Lloyd, N. D. H., Canvin, D. T. & Culver, D. A. Plant Physiol. 59, 936–940 (1977).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Salisbury, F. B. & Ross, C. W. Plant Physiology (Wadsworth, Belmont, California, 1985).

    Google Scholar 

  21. Lovelock, J. E. & Whitfield, M. Nature 296, 561–563 (1982).

    Article  ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Rogers, H. H., Thomas, J. F. & Bingham, G. E. Science 220, 428–429 (1983).

    Article  ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Hicklenton, P. R. & Jolliffe, P. A. Can. J. Bot. 58, 2181–2189 (1980).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Seckbach, J., Baker, F. A. & Shugarman, P. M. Nature 227, 744–745 (1970).

    Article  ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Drew, M. C. Curr. Adv. Plant Sci. 36, 1–14 (1979).

    Google Scholar 

  26. Klingler, J. M., Mancinelli, R. L. & White, M. R. Adv. Space Res. 9, 173–176 (1989).

    Article  ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Billings, C. E. in Bioastronautics Data Book (eds Parker, J. F. Jr & West, V. R.) NASA SP-3006, 1–34; 35–64 (Washington DC, 1973).

    Google Scholar 

  28. Welch, B. E., Morgan, T. E. Jr & Clamann, H. G. Federation Proc. 22, 1053–1056 (1963).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. MacEwen, J. D. in Bioastronautics Data Book (eds Parker, J. F. Jr & West, V. R.) NASA SP-3006, 455–488 (Washington DC, 1973).

    Google Scholar 

  30. Lovelock, J. E. Gaia (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1979).

    Google Scholar 

  31. Roth, E. M. in Atmosphere in Space Cabins and Closed Environments (ed. Kemmermeyer, K.), 13–31 (Merideth, New York, 1964).

    Google Scholar 

  32. Anders, E. & Grevesse, N. Geochim. cosmochim. Acta 53, 197–214 (1989).

    Article  ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Owen, T. et al. J. geophys. Res. 82, 4635–4639 (1977).

    Article  ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Pollack, J. B. Icarus 37, 479–533 (1979).

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  35. Cess, R. D., Ramanathan, V. & Owen, T. Icarus 41, 159–165 (1980).

    Article  ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Hoffert, M. I., Callegari, A. J., Hsieh, C. T. & Ziegler, W. Icarus 47, 112–129 (1981).

    Article  ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Postawko, S. E. & Kuhn, W. R. Proc. 16th Lunar Planet. Sci. Conf., J. geophys. Res. 91, D431–D438 (1986).

    Article  ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Kieffer, H. H. et al. J. geophys. Res. 82, 4249–4292 (1977).

    Article  ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Kong, T. Y. & McElroy, M. B. Icarus 32, 168–189 (1977).

    Article  ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Kasting, J. F. & Walker, J. C. G. J. geophys. Res. 86, 1147–1158 (1981).

    Article  ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Kasting, J. F., Pollack, J. B. & Crisp, D. J. atmos. Chem. 1, 403–428 (1984).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Oyama, V. I. & Berdahl, B. J. J. geophys. Res. 82, 4669–4676 (1977).

    Article  ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Kasting, J. F. & Ackerman, T. P. Science 234, 1383–1385 (1986).

    Article  ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Ramanathan, V., Cicerone, R. J., Singh, H. B. & Kiehl, J. T. J. geophys. Res. 90, 5547–5566 (1985).

    Article  ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Weast, R. C. CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (CRC, West Palm Beach, Florida, 1978).

    Google Scholar 

  46. Hammitt, J. K. Nature 330, 711–716 (1987).

    Article  ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Gierasch, P. J. & Toon, O. B. J. atmos. Sci. 30, 1502–1508 (1973).

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  48. Sagan, C., Toon, O. B. & Gierasch, P. J. Science 181, 1045–1049 (1973).

    Article  ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Paige, D. A., Herkenhoff, K. E. & Murray, B. C. J. geophys. Res. 95, 1319–1335 (1990).

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  50. Fanale, F. P. & Cannon, W. A. J. geophys. Res. 84, 8404–8414 (1979); 79, 3397–3402 (1974).

    Article  ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Fanale, F. P., Salvail, J. R., Banerdt, W. B. & Saunders, R. S. Icarus 50, 381–407 (1982).

    Article  ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Zent, A. P. & Fanale, F. P. J. geophys. Res. 91, D439–D445 (1986).

    Article  ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Toon, O. B., Pollack, J. B., Ward, W., Burns, J. A. & Bilski, K. Icarus 44, 552–607 (1980).

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  54. Zent, A. P., Fanale, F. P. & Postawko, S. E. Icarus 71, 241–249 (1987).

    Article  ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Valenzuela, D. P. & Meyers, A. L. Adsorption Equilibrium Data Handbook (Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1989).

    Google Scholar 

  56. Lewis, J. S. Earth planet. Sci. Lett. 15, 286–290 (1972).

    Article  ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Anders, E. & Owen, T. Science 198, 453–465 (1977).

    Article  ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Rasool, S. I. & LeSergeant, L. Nature 266, 822–823 (1977).

    Article  ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Clark, B. C. & Baird, A. K. Geophys. Res. Lett. 6, 811–814 (1979).

    Article  ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. McElroy, M. B., Kong, T. Y. & Yung, Y. L. J. geophys. Res. 82, 4379–4388 (1977).

    Article  ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. Pollack, J. B. & Black, D. C. Science 205, 56–59 (1979); Icarus 51, 169–198 (1982).

    Article  ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Dreibus, G. & Wänke, H. Icarus 71, 225–240 (1987).

    Article  ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. Becker, R. H. & Pepin, R. O. Earth planet. Sci. Lett. 69, 225–242 (1984).

    Article  ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Pepin, R. O. Rev. Geophys. 25, 293–296 (1987).

    Article  ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. Bogard, D. D. & Johnson, P. Science 221, 651–654 (1983).

    Article  ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  66. Greeley, R. Science 236, 1653–1654 (1987).

    Article  ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Carr, M. H. Icarus 68, 187–216 (1986).

    Article  ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. Liu, S. & Donahue, T. M. Icarus 28, 231–246 (1976).

    Article  ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. Fox, J. L. & Dalgarno, A. J. geophys. Res. 88, 9027–9032 (1983).

    Article  ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Owen, T., Maillard, J. P., de Bergh, C. & Lutz, B. L. Science 240, 1767–1770 (1988).

    Article  ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Yung, Y. L. et al. Icarus 76, 146–159 (1988).

    Article  ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. Carr, M. H. Icarus 87, 210–227 (1990).

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  73. Melosh, H. J. & Vickery, A. M. Nature 338, 487–489 (1989).

    Article  ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. Meyer, T. R. & McKay, C. P. J. Brit. interplanet. Soc. 42, 147–160 (1989).

    ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. Squyres, S. W. & Carr, M. H. Science 231, 249–252 (1986).

    Article  ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  76. Pollack, J. B. et al. J. geophys. Res. 95, 14595–14628 (1990).

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  77. Toulmin, P. III, Baird, A. K., Clark, B. C., Keil, K. & Rose, H. J. Jr Science 194, 81–84 (1976).

    Article  ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Toulmin, P. et al. J. geophys. Res. 82, 4625–4634 (1977).

    Article  ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  79. Prinn, R. G. & Fegley, B. Jr Ann. Rev. Earth planet. Sci. 15, 171–212 (1987).

    Article  ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  80. Dreibus, G. & Wänke, H. Meteoritics 20, 367–381 (1985).

    ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. Clark, B. in Mars (University of Arizona Press, Tucson, 1991).

    Google Scholar 

  82. Whittaker, R. H. Communities and Ecosystems 2nd edn (Macmillan, New York, 1975).

    Google Scholar 

  83. Turekian, K. K. & Clark, S. P. Jr J. atmos. Sci. 32, 1257–1261 (1975).

    Article  ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Space Science Division, NASA Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, California, 94035, USA

    Christopher P. McKay

  2. Earth System Science Division, NASA Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, California, 94035, USA

    Owen B. Toon

  3. Department of Geosciences, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, 16802, USA

    James F. Kasting

Authors
  1. Christopher P. McKay
  2. Owen B. Toon
  3. James F. Kasting

About this article

Cite this article

McKay, C., Toon, O. & Kasting, J. Making Mars habitable. Nature 352, 489–496 (1991). https://doi.org/10.1038/352489a0

Download citation

  • Issue date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/352489a0

This article is cited by

Search

Advanced search

Quick links

👁 Nature Briefing

Sign up for the Nature Briefing newsletter — what matters in science, free to your inbox daily.

Get the most important science stories of the day, free in your inbox. Sign up for Nature Briefing