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⇱ Christopher Rollston - The George Washington University

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Rollston is a tenured, full Professor at George Washington University, in the Department of Classical and Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations. He is the Chair of that Department. He is a member of Phi Beta Kappa.  Rollston earned his MA and Ph.D. at The Johns Hopkins University in Hebrew Bible, Dead Sea Scrolls, Septuagint, Second Temple Judaism, Epigraphy.

He works in more than a dozen languages, including various ancient Near Eastern and Mediterranean languages (e.g., Hebrew, Aramaic, Phoenician, Classical and Hellenistic Greek, Sahidic Coptic, Latin, Ugaritic, Akkadian, Moabite, Ammonite, Edomite) and multiple modern research languages (e.g., German, French, Spanish). 

Among the foci of his research are: Hebrew Bible (Old Testament), New Testament, Early Christianity, law and religion in the ancient Near East and Mediterranean, inscriptions, writing and literacy in the ancient world, scribal education, origins and early use of the alphabet, ancient and modern epigraphic forgeries, cultural heritage laws, ancient wisdom literature, prophecy in the ancient Near Eastern and Mediterranean contexts.

Rollston co-edited the volume entitled _Biblical and Ancient Near Eastern Studies in Honor of P. Kyle McCarter, Jr. (Society of Biblical Literature, 2022), edited the volume entitled _Enemies and Friends of the State: Ancient Prophecy in Context_ (Penn State University Press, an Eisenbrauns imprint, 2018), Moreover, Rollston's monograph entitled _Writing and Literacy in Ancient Israel: Epigraphic Evidence from the Iron Age_ was published by the Society of Biblical Literature (October 2010).  This volume was selected (in November 2011) by the American Society of Overseas Research for the the prestigious "Frank Moore Cross Prize" as the most substantial volume in the field of Northwest Semitic Epigraphy.  Rollston also edited a volume entitled _Gospels According to Michael Goulder: A North American Response_ (Trinity Press International, 2002), with contributions from Krister Stendahl, Alan Segal, John Kloppenborg, Bruce Chilton.

Rollston has published articles in a number of refereed journals, including the Bulletin of the American Society of Overseas Research, the Journal of Biblical Literature, Hebrew Bible and Ancient Israel, Near Eastern Archaeology, Antiguo Oriente, Israel Exploration Journal, Tel Aviv, and MAARAV.  He has also published in Biblical Archaeology Review.

Rollston's research has been funded by various agencies and organizations, including the National Endowment for the Humanities, the Society of Biblical Literature, and the American Society of Overseas Research.  Moreover, he has excavated in Syria and in Israel and has conducted research at museums and departments of antiquity in Lebanon, Israel, Jordan, and Syria, and at various museums in the United States in Europe.

He has lectured and delivered invited papers in a number of venues, including Yale University, Princeton University, Princeton Theological Seminary, Duke University, Hebrew University, Brown University, Al-Quds University (Jerusalem), Emory University, Tel Aviv University, Vanderbilt University, Baylor University, the University of Wisconsin (Madison), the University of Tennessee, the University of Michigan, Brigham Young University, and Amherst College.

Rollston is active in the American Society of Overseas Research and the Society of Biblical Literature (and has chaired and co-chaired epigraphic sessions for the annual meetings of both).  For two terms (six years), he served on the Society of Biblical Literature Council.  He also served for several years on the Governing Board of the American Society of Overseas Research.  For two terms (six years), he co-edited (with Eric Cline) the Bulletin of the American Society of Overseas Research.  For ca. two decades, he was the editor of the journal MAARAV.  He has also functioned as a reviewer for a number of additional journals and presses.  In addition, he formerly served on a regular basis on Reaffirmation Committees (on-site and off-site) for the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools and the Association of Theological Schools. 

Rollston has taught at the undergraduate, master's, and Ph.D. levels.  Among the courses he has taught are: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament), New Testament, Law and Diplomacy in the Ancient Near East, Wisdom Literature, Prophetic Texts, Second Temple Jewish Literature, Archaeology of Syria-Palestine, Dead Sea Scrolls, Ugaritic, Akkadian, Biblical and Epigraphic Aramaic, Biblical and Epigraphic Hebrew, Hellenistic Greek, Septuagint, Sahidic Coptic, Textual Criticism of the Hebrew Bible (Ph.D. course at Johns Hopkins University), and the Bible in the Qur'an.
Supervisors: P. Kyle McCarter and Jr. ; Bruce Zuckerman
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Books by Christopher Rollston

Writing and Literacy in the World of Ancient Israel: Epigraphic Evidence from the Iron Age
Ancient Northwest Semitic inscriptions from Israel, Phoenicia, Syria, Moab, Ammon, Edom, and Phil... more Ancient Northwest Semitic inscriptions from Israel, Phoenicia, Syria, Moab, Ammon, Edom, and Philistia enlighten and sharpen our vision of the Old Testament world in various ways. Writing and Literacy in the World of Ancient Israel focuses on this epigraphic evidence in order to broaden our understanding of the techniques and roles of writing, education, and literacy during this biblical period. To that end, the volume systematically covers scribal education; scribal implements; writing media such as stones, potsherds, and plaster; and the religious, administrative, and personal uses of writing. Its handbook format makes it easily accessible, including for use as a textbook in courses addressing the cultural context of ancient Israel.
Enemies and Friends of the State: Ancient Prophecy in Context
Edited by Rollston, this (2018, Penn State University Press, an Eisenbrauns imprint) volume, focu... more Edited by Rollston, this (2018, Penn State University Press, an Eisenbrauns imprint) volume, focuses on the Hebrew Bible, within the broader ancient Near Eastern context.  Contributors include John Collins, Helene Sader, Eric Meyers, Jennifer Knust, J.J.M. Roberts, Richard Horsley, Francesca Stavrakopoulou, William Schniedewind, Gerald Knoppers, Miriam Perkins, Jonathan Stokl.
Forging History in the Ancient World of the Bible & The Modern World of Biblical Studies
Leading Experts Introduce the People and Contexts of the Old Testament What people groups intera... more Leading Experts Introduce the People and Contexts of the Old Testament

What people groups interacted with ancient Israel? Who were the Hurrians and why do they matter? What do we know about the Philistines, the Egyptians, the Amorites, the Assyrians, the Babylonians, and others?

In this up-to-date volume, leading experts introduce the peoples and places of the world around the Old Testament, providing students with a fresh exploration of the ancient Near East. The contributors offer comprehensive orientations to the main cultures and people groups that surrounded ancient Israel in the wider ancient Near East, including not only Mesopotamia and the northern Levant but also Egypt, Arabia, and Greece. They also explore the contributions of each people group or culture to our understanding of the Hebrew Scriptures.

This supplementary text is organized by geographic region, making it especially suitable for the classroom and useful in a variety of Old Testament courses. Approximately eighty-five illustrative items are included throughout the book.

Contents
Introduction
Bill T. Arnold and Brent A. Strawn
1. The Amorites
Daniel E. Fleming
2. Assyria and the Assyrians
Christopher B. Hays with Peter Machinist
3. Babylonia and the Babylonians
David S. Vanderhooft
4. Ugarit and the Ugaritians
Mark S. Smith
5. Egypt and the Egyptians
Joel M. LeMon
6. The Hittites and the Hurrians
Billie Jean Collins
7. Aram and the Arameans
K. Lawson Younger Jr.
8. Phoenicia and the Phoenicians
Christopher A. Rollston
9. Transjordan: The Ammonites, Moabites, and Edomites
Joel S. Burnett
10. Philistia and the Philistines
Carl S. Ehrlich
11. Persia and the Persians
Pierre Briant
12. Arabia and the Arabians
David F. Graf
13. Greece and the Greeks
Walter Burkert†
Indexes
The Gospels According to Michael Goulder: A North American Response
Michael Goulder has made seminal contributions to contemporary New Testament scholarship with stu... more Michael Goulder has made seminal contributions to contemporary New Testament scholarship with studies ranging from the Gospels and Acts to the Pauline epistles. His work has also provoked controversy, especially his view that the Gospels--particularly Matthew—were written as Midrash on the liturgies of the Jewish festivals and calendar. This is a theory upon which some of the bestselling work of John Shelby Spong is based. Goulder also argues that the hypothetical sayings source Q—accepted as fact by the majority of New Testament scholars— never existed.
The Gospels According to Michael Goulder is a comprehensive and critical evaluation and commentary on his work. In addition to the contributions, Goulder himself responds to his critics. Contributors include:

Bruce Chilton, Bard College
John Kloppenborg Verbin, St. Michael’s College/University of Toronto
Gary Gilbert, Claremont-McKenna College
Alan Segal, Barnard College, Columbia University
Krister Stendahl, Harvard University Divinity School

Articles by Christopher Rollston

Israel Exploration Journal, 2023
This article is a fact-based critique of the sensational claims made by a team of scholars that a... more This article is a fact-based critique of the sensational claims made by a team of scholars that a piece of folded lead from Mount Ebal is a curse tablet, written in the Early Alphabetic script and probably in the ancient Hebrew language.  Rollston deals primarily with the epigraphic and linguistic problems with these claims (largely following his previous critiques on his blog spots), and Maeir deals primarily with the archaeological problems.  Basically, the major problem (and thus the basis of our critique) is that there are *no discernible letters on the high resolution images of this piece of lead.*  In essence, a basic methodological imperative of the field of epigraphy is that the photos (or images) must be able to corroborate the readings which are posited.  That is not the case with this find.  Thus, we contend that this is not actually an inscription...as there are no actual letters (there are scratches, dents, etc., since lead is very soft metal, but there are no letters).  Near the end of the article, we mention that a colleague (Amihai Mazar of Hebrew University) has drawn attention to a number of lead weights which have been found on excavations.    If you do not have access to this publication and would like to read it, please send me a note, and I'll try to send a PDF to you.
RollstonEpigraphy.com, 2024
Three Greek, Early Christian mosaic inscriptions, from ca. 230 CE (A.D. 230) were discovered in a... more Three Greek, Early Christian mosaic inscriptions, from ca. 230 CE (A.D. 230) were discovered in a "Christian Worship Hall" on a salvage archaeological expedition near Tel Megiddo (New Testament "Armageddon"). 
Strikingly, one of the mosaic inscriptions (commissioned by a prominent woman) mentions "God Jesus Christ," a "memorial," and a "table" (a Eucharist table, it seems), one of them refers to a Roman Centurion (Gaianus, also called Porphyrius) who is a Christian and funded the mosaic, and one inscription mentions four women (Primilla, Kuriake, Dorothea, and Chreste) who are to be "remembered." There are also two fish, reminiscent of the miracle(s) of the "loaves and fishes."
Within this blog post (www.rollstonepigraphy.com), I discuss these three inscriptions in detail, bringing philological and historical analysis to the fore, while also using the lens of the New Testament and Early Christian history.
Times of Israel (https://blogs.timesofisrael.com/the-old-hebrew-ishmael-papyrus-tapping-the-brakes/), 2022
On September 7, 2022, various press outlets ran stories about a First Temple Period Hebrew papyru... more On September 7, 2022, various press outlets ran stories about a First Temple Period Hebrew papyrus, with an Old Hebrew inscription, putatively dating to the late 7th/early 6th century BCE. Four lines of text are partially preserved, with the first extant word of the first extant line reading "To Ishmael."
This article (by Prof. Christopher Rollston) was published in the Times of Israel, and includes a call for caution (i.e., tapping the brakes) with regard to some of the conclusions about this papyrus...especially since it was not found on an archaeological excavation, but rather was purchased (or received as a gift) in Israel and then ended up in Montana (thus, a very striking "chain of custody").
Rethinking Israel: Studies in the History and Archaeology of Ancient Israel in Honor of Israel Finkelstein (Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns), 2017
This article focuses primarily on an ink inscription (in the Old Hebrew script) on papyrus. This ... more This article focuses primarily on an ink inscription (in the Old Hebrew script) on papyrus. This papyrus was essentially confiscated from antiquities dealers, and soon thereafter affirmed by some to be ancient and authentic. This inscription contains (among other things) the word "Jerusalem," which makes it a very interesting inscription. Ultimately, although the papyrus itself seems to be ancient, I contend in this article that the ink letters on it are most likely modern (based on a constellation of evidence). This article was published in a Festschrift volume for the great Israeli archaeologist Israel Finkelstein.
Times of Israel , 2022
Gershon Galil announced (on July 7, 2022) that he has "deciphered the Jerusalem stone tablet." V... more Gershon Galil announced (on July 7, 2022) that he has "deciphered the Jerusalem stone tablet."  Various press outlets have reported on Galil's "decipherment." This is my response, published in the Times of Israel, in essence, calling into question many of the most sensational assertions by Galil. Note also that this stone may not be inscribed at all, as the markings on the stone could be understood quite readily as decorative motifs and striations. In sum, methodological caution is the proper response to Galil's sensational assertions.

URL for published version of article: https://blogs.timesofisrael.com/sensational-claims-about-the-jerusalem-stone-inscription-not-so-fast/
The Mount Ebal Lead 'Curse' Inscription in Late Bronze Age Hebrew: Some Methodological Caveats, 2022
Some particularly sensational claims were made in a press conference (by Scott Stripling, Gershon... more Some particularly sensational claims were made in a press conference (by Scott Stripling, Gershon Galil, and Pieter van der Veen) on March 24, 2022 about a small lead 'inscription' that is purported to hail from the Late Bronze Age, to be written in the Ancient Hebrew language, to consist of forty letters, to be full of curses (i.e., with the tri-literal root 'rr occurring ten times), and to twice mention Yahweh. And as part of these claims, it was asserted in the press conference that there are a lot of firsts for this inscription. This article discusses a number of the problematic nature of a number of these claims and contends that the conclusions do not follow from the data, even if we assume (and it would be a big assumption) that the readings of the scholars involved are correct. Dramatic claims require, of necessity, dramatic evidence, and we just don't have it here.
http://www.rollstonepigraphy.com/?p=921, 2021
Four inscribed clay cylinders were discovered at the archaeological site of Tell Umm el-Marra in ... more Four inscribed clay cylinders were discovered at the archaeological site of Tell Umm el-Marra in the 2004 excavation season, in a secure tomb context, and with associated carbon remains which have been carbon dated. The signs on these inscriptions are graphemically very similar to that which is known from Early Alphabetic inscriptions (e.g., Serabit el-Khadem and Wadi el-Hol), but the archaeological context is substantially older earlier than that of the Serabit and el-Hol inscriptions.  This article surveys the salient aspects of these finds and concludes that they are indeed Early Alphabetic.
RollstonEpigraphy.com, 2021
Abstract: This blog article focuses especially on the Dead Sea Scroll Fragments which had been pu... more Abstract: This blog article focuses especially on the Dead Sea Scroll Fragments which had been purchased a number of years ago for the Museum of the Bible (also of import is the fact that this blog article contains a profile of the probable forger of these Museum of the Bible fragments). These fragments were, of course, ultimately declared to be modern forgeries.  I was part of the symposium at the Museum of the Bible in DC at which the conclusions regarding forgery were publicly presented at the Museum.  This blog article is essentially the presentation I made at the Museum of the Bible at this event.
RollstonEpigraphy.com, 2021
This article discusses (and critiques) the recent (2021) attempt to contend that the famous Shapi... more This article discusses (and critiques) the recent (2021) attempt to contend that the famous Shapira Forgeries ("Shapira Strips" "Shapira Fragments"), which surfaced on the antiquities market in 1883, are actually authentic and ancient, not modern forgeries. People have suggested this before, especially Menahem Mansoor ca. 50 years ago.  Within this blog post, I discuss some of the most relevant evidence....which continues to demonstrate beyond a reasonable doubt that these Shapira Strips are indeed modern forgeries, not ancient scrolls of portions of the book of Deuteronomy (but rather they are copied from the book of Deuteronomy, with the standard "flourishes of forgers from time immemorial." This blog post will be followed in due time by a more detailed, and carefully structured, print article.  But this blog post covers many of the essential details.
An Eye for Form: Epigraphic Essays in Honor of Frank Moore Cross, 2014
This article is an illustrated (with drawings of inscriptions) discussion of the Iron Age Phoenic... more This article is an illustrated (with drawings of inscriptions) discussion of the Iron Age Phoenician script (especially the earlier part of its history), beginning with the Azarba'al Inscription, Ahiram,  down through Shipitba'al, the Kition Bowl, etc.  Among the most useful components of the article may be the drawings, which are intended to complement the verbal descriptions of morphology and stance in the article.
An Eye for Form: Epigraphic Essays in Honor of Frank Moore Cross, 2014
This is a synthetic statement about the methodology used in palaeography and epigraphy (for Hebre... more This is a synthetic statement about the methodology used in palaeography and epigraphy (for Hebrew, Aramaic, Phoenician, etc.), summarizing the way that it works, the features that are looked at, the weight attributed to certain variations (synchronic and diachronic) in the morphology (form) and stance of letters, etc.
An Eye for form: Epigraphic Essays in Honor of Frank Moore Cross, 2014
This article is a lengthy analysis of the Old Hebrew script of the First Temple Period, with some... more This article is a lengthy analysis of the Old Hebrew script of the First Temple Period, with some comparative analyses of scripts such as Aramaic, Phoenician, and Ammonite.  In the body of the article, typical or standard letters are placed in the margin of each page so as to facilitate the ease of understanding the descriptions of the forms and stance of letters.
Archaeology and History of Eighth Century Judah [Oded Borowski Festschrift] (Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2018), 2018
The eighth century was a time of political and religious tumult and it was also a literary florui... more The eighth century was a time of political and religious tumult and it was also a literary floruit.  Some of the most important Old Hebrew inscriptions hail from the eighth century, including the Kuntillet Ajrud inscriptions mentioning "Yahweh and his Asherah," the economic dockets from the Israelite capital of Samaria, the burial Inscriptions from Khirbet el-Qom, the Siloam Tunnel Inscription dating to the time of Sennacherib's siege, and the Royal Steward Inscription from Jerusalem.  The script and orthography of these texts are very impressive, and some of these texts even employ complicated (Egyptian) Hieratic numerals.  Moreover, we also have Mesopotamian cuneiform texts that detail Mesopotamian interactions with the Levant, including with King Joash of Israel, King Pekah of Israel, King Ahaz of Judah, and King Hezekiah of Judah.  Of particular import in this regard is the fact that some of these events documented in Mesopotamian texts are also known from the Hebrew Bible, including even the name of Sennacherib's assassin(s).  In short, there were some capable and gifted scribes in Israel and Judah during the eighth century.  And these scribes produced some very fine written materials in Old Hebrew, and they were also responsible for writing archival materials that formed the basis of certain segments of the books of Kings.
The Social Archaeology of the Levant: From Prehistory to the Present. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press., 2019
The alphabet was invented in the 2nd millennium BCE, but it really began to flourish in the 1st m... more The alphabet was invented in the 2nd millennium BCE, but it really began to flourish in the 1st millennium BCE.  The focus of this article is the alphabet in the 1st millennium...with its usage to write Semitic-language inscriptions and literature in Aramaic, Phoenician, and Hebrew (etc), as well as for writing Greek and Latin inscriptions and literature (although the focus of the article is inscriptions).  This article focuses on a number of the great inscriptions in these languages.  Also...perhaps of particular importance, this article discusses the 10th century as the probable date for the origins of the Greek alphabet (adapted from the Phoenician).
http://www.rollstonepigraphy.com/?p=801, 2018
A new bulla (i.e., a lump of clay impressed with a seal) has just been published, hailing from ex... more A new bulla (i.e., a lump of clay impressed with a seal) has just been published, hailing from excavations in Jerusalem.  Some have contended that this bulla is, or probably is, one that was made by the personal seal of the Biblical Prophet Isaiah (of the 8th century BCE).  In this article, I discuss the find, and the various reasons that converge to demonstrate that we should be cautious about making that assumptions.

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