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Summary Understanding considered as an epistemic accomplishment.  Some of the relevant questions include: How does understanding differ (if at all) from other epistemic accomplishments such as knowledge or wisdom?  And what does it take to understand events in the world, as opposed to people, or languages, or works of art?
Key works Influential recent works include Zagzebski 2001, Kvanvig 2003, and Grimm 2006.
Introductions Grimm 2011 offers an overview of the literature.
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  1. The Ontic Probability Interpretation of Quantum Theory - Part III: Schrödinger’s Cat and the ‘Basis’ and ‘Measurement’ Pseudo-Problems (2nd edition).Felix Alba-Juez - manuscriptdetails
    Most of us are either philosophically naïve scientists or scientifically naïve philosophers, so we misjudged Schrödinger’s “very burlesque” portrait of Quantum Theory (QT) as a profound conundrum. The clear signs of a strawman argument were ignored. The Ontic Probability Interpretation (TOPI) is a metatheory: a theory about the meaning of QT. Ironically, equating Reality with Actuality cannot explain actual data, justifying the century-long philosophical struggle. The actual is real but not everything real is actual. The ontic character of the Probable (...) has been elusive for so long because it cannot be grasped directly from experiment; it can only be inferred from physical setups that do not morph it into the Actual. In this Part III, Born’s Rule and the quantum formalism for the microworld are intuitively surmised from instances in our macroworld. The posited reality of the quanton’s probable states and properties is probed and proved. After almost a century, TOPI aims at setting the record straight: the so-called ‘Basis’ and ‘Measurement’ problems are ill-advised. About the first, all bases are legitimate regardless of state and milieu. As for the second, its premise is false: there is no need for a physical ‘collapse’ process that would convert many states into a single state. Under TOPI, a more sensible variant of the ‘measurement problem’ can be reformulated in non-anthropic terms as a real problem. Yet, as such, it is not part of QT per se and will be tackled in future papers. As for the mythical cat, the ontic state of a radioactive nucleus is not pure, so its evolution is not governed by Schrödinger’s equation – let alone the rest of his “hellish machine”. Einstein was right: “The Lord is subtle but not malicious”. However, ‘The Lord’ turned out to be much subtler than what Einstein and Schrödinger could have ever accepted. Part IV introduces QR/TOPI: a new theory that solves the century-old problem of integrating Special Relativity with Quantum Theory [1]. (shrink)
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  2. Toward a Unified Theory of Understanding: A Conceptual Analysis for Natural and Artificial Understanding.Hasan Çagatay - manuscriptdetails
    Understanding is the foundational component of intelligence that makes adaptation to novel states possible. As artificial intelligence models advance towards artificial general and super intelligence, an objective, in contrast to human-centered, theory of understanding is required. One merit of an objective conceptual analysis of understanding is that it would unify human and artificial understanding. This study defines understanding as well-integrated use of reasoning across a network of conceptual, logical, and causal relationships, which are situated on an efficient conceptual web. The (...) evolutionary function of understanding is the capacity to generalize knowledge into novel situations. This renders machine learning concept “generalization” a measure of understanding. The paper discusses two primary methods for assessing artificial understanding: behavioral methods measuring generalizability and mechanistic analyses revealing causal mechanisms of the neural network. We discuss the limitations of these methods. The most important problem, as this paper defends, is the difficulty of measuring objective understanding in contrast to human-understanding. (shrink)
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  3. Resilient Understanding: The Value of Seeing for Oneself.Matthew Slater & Jason Leddington - manuscriptdetails
    The primary aim of this paper is to argue that the value of understanding derives in part from a kind of subjective stability of belief that we call epistemic resilience. We think that this feature of understanding has been overlooked by recent work, and we think it’s especially important to the value of understanding for social cognitive agents such as us. We approach the concept of epistemic resilience via the idea of the experience of epistemic ownership and argue that the (...) former concept has Platonic pedigree. Contrary to longstanding exegetical tradition, we think that Plato solves the “Meno problem” with an appeal to the epistemic resilience characteristic of understanding, not the well-groundedness characteristic of canonical cases of propositional knowledge. Finally, we apply our discussion to the case of science outreach and the challenge of global warming skepticism and conclude with directions for future research. (shrink)
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  4. Understanding, seeming and believing.Douglas Patterson - manuscriptdetails
    A short discussion of whether or not an error theorist of understanding should construe understanding in terms of belief. This is a comment on a discussion between Dean Pettit and Steven Gross.
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  5. The Nature and Value of Firsthand Insight.Elijah Chudnoff - forthcoming - Philosophical Studies:1-15.details
    You can be convinced that something is true but still desire to see it for yourself. A trusted critic makes some observations about a movie, now you want to watch it with them in mind. A proof demonstrates the validity of a formula, but you are not satisfied until you see how the formula works. In these cases, we place special value on knowing by what Sosa (2021) calls “firsthand insight” a truth that we might already know in some other (...) way such as by testimony, the balance of evidence, or proof. This phenomenon raises two questions. First, what is the nature of firsthand insight? Second, what value motivates us to pursue firsthand insight when other kinds of knowledge are readily available? In the two central parts of this paper, I develop answers to these questions. I argue that firsthand insight that a proposition is true is knowledge based on experience of what makes that proposition true, and I argue that desires for firsthand insight are motivated by concerns with alienation. In a concluding section, I briefly illustrate how the resulting view of the nature and value of firsthand insight might bear on broader topics in the theory of value. (shrink)
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  6. Puzzlement as a Guide to Understanding.Samuel Dishaw - forthcoming - Analysis.details
    In this paper, I draw attention to a familiar yet overlooked epistemic state: puzzlement. We experience that by which we are puzzled as being in some way incomprehensible to us. Puzzlement is thus distinct from the mere absence of understanding. It is a polar rather than privative opposite of understanding. The distinction between puzzlement and the mere absence of understanding, I go on to argue, raises a novel problem for reductive analyses of understanding in terms of knowledge.
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  7. Inquiring to Understand.Adham El Shazly - forthcoming - Philosophical Quarterly.details
    We often inquire not just to know, but to understand. In this paper I give an account of inquiries that aim to illuminate or makes sense of their object and argue they don’t reduce to inquiries which concern forming beliefs or acquiring knowledge. My core claim is that inquiry aimed at understanding is a constructive and generative process, unlike inquiry aiming at knowledge acquisition, which culminates in the representation of pre-existing facts. Central to this process are sensemaking frames—representational devices that (...) interpret their target by structuring and organising information about it. To that end, I propose and defend the noetic account of inquiry, according to which epistemic improvement in inquiry is a matter of structuring information to illuminate and make sense of the object of inquiry. I conclude by explaining how inquiring to understand is distinctively open-ended, a creative process of structuring the information landscape, a landscape which isn’t always readily given to us. (shrink)
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  8. Communicating Understanding.Adham El Shazly - forthcoming - Australasian Journal of Philosophy.details
    Knowledge can be transmitted through testimony. What about understanding? In this paper I argue against the possibility of testimonial understanding by giving an account of understanding in terms of ‘mental structures’. Then I argue while we cannot integrate communicating understanding into a propositional model of epistemic communication, we can do so on a perspectival model. I highlight the importance of this to the epistemology of education throughout.
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       2 citations  
  9. Understanding: It's All Interrogative.Kenneth Galbraith & Kareem Khalifa - forthcoming - Philosophical Studies.details
    In this paper, we propose a new account of understanding. Its guiding idea is that the objects that are understood have the semantic structure of questions. Understanding is achieved by grasping correct and complete answers to these questions. We develop this idea, and then argue that various kinds of propositional, objectual, and explanatory understanding are limiting cases of our “interrogative” account of understanding. In doing so, we also highlight several kinds of understanding that have received scant attention.
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  10. The practice of explaining.Grzegorz Gaszczyk & J. P. Grodniewicz - forthcoming - Philosophical Quarterly.details
    By offering explanations, we help each other understand the world. But not all explanations are created equal. In this paper, we argue that, while the practice of explaining is unified by its function—the dissemination of understanding—there are different ways to engage in it. We can do so by offering what we call a minimal explanation, a customized explanation, or an interactive explanation. Each of them is appropriate in different contexts and comes with a set of relevant expectations. Moreover, each is (...) guided by a specific norm. Only when we take all these ways of participating in the practice of explaining into account will we be able to spell out what is expected from explainers in different situations. As a result, we will be able to tell good explainers from bad ones by assessing whether they fulfill the relevant norm and thus offer explanations appropriate for a given context. (shrink)
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  11. Understanding Philosophy.Michael Hannon & James Nguyen - forthcoming - Inquiry: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Philosophy.details
    What is the primary intellectual aim of philosophy? The standard view is that philosophy aims to provide true answers to philosophical questions. But if our aim is to settle controversy by answering such questions, our discipline is an embarrassing failure. Moreover, taking philosophy to aim at providing true answers to these questions leads to a variety of puzzles: How do we account for philosophical expertise? How is philosophical progress possible? Why do job search committees not care about the truth or (...) falsity of a candidate’s philosophical views? We argue that philosophy does not aim at discovering true answers to philosophical questions. Instead, its primary intellectual aim is understanding. We argue that many familiar aspects of philosophy become intelligible once we accept this hypothesis. (shrink)
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  12. Do scientific communities understand? A fictionalist account.Kareem Khalifa & Sanford C. Goldberg - forthcoming - Philosophical Studies.details
    Scientific understanding typically involves multiple specialists performing interdependent tasks. According to several social–epistemological accounts, this suggests that scientific communities are collective epistemic subjects. We argue instead that the data does not warrant the postulation of a collective subject. Our position, rather, is fictionalist: we argue that the use of sentences attributing understanding to scientific communities amounts to loose talk which is best construed as indicating how social environments associated with a scientific community promote individual scientists' understanding.
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  13. Understanding in Science and Philosophy.Michaela McSweeney - forthcoming - In Sanford C. Goldberg & Mark Walker, Attitude in Philosophy. Oxford University Press.details
    I first quickly outline what I think grasping is, and suggest that it is both among our basic aims of inquiry and not essentially tied to belief, justification, or knowledge. Then, I briefly look at some places in the metaphysics of science in which it looks like our aim of grasping and our aim in knowing—or perhaps more specifically in knowing the explanations for things—might seem to conflict. I will use this conflict to support a broader view: sometimes, we might (...) develop philosophical views or theories—and even endorse them—in order to better grasp them, regardless of whether we genuinely believe them, or are justified in so doing. At other times, we may be aiming at propositional knowledge. These aims can come apart, and perhaps even systematically come apart. A pluralism about the value of those aims doesn’t entail an “anything goes” attitude with respect to how we think about what philosophical views to put forward, defend, or endorse, however—far from it. Instead, it suggests that what counts as a virtue of a philosophical theory depends on our aims in espousing it. If philosophers have distinct aims at the meta-level, it will be hard for them to engage in joint theory evaluation at the first-order level. At least all three of theoretical virtues, evaluative judgments of philosophical views, and what attitudes we ought to have towards the views we ourselves espouse will vary according to our guiding metaphilosophical aims. (shrink)
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  14. Common knowledge. The development of understanding in the classroom.N. Mercer & D. Edwards - forthcoming - Common Knowledge: The Development of Understanding in the Classroom.details
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       35 citations  
  15. Thank you for misunderstanding!Collin Rice & Kareem Khalifa - forthcoming - Philosophical Studies.details
    This paper examines cases in which an individual’s misunderstanding improves the scientific community’s understanding through “corrective” processes that produce understanding from poor epistemic inputs. To highlight the unique features of valuable misunderstandings and corrective processes, we contrast them with other social-epistemological phenomena including testimonial understanding, collective understanding, Longino’s critical contextual empiricism, and knowledge from falsehoods.
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  16. LLMs, Higher Education, and Understanding: When to Drive and When to Walk.Jacob Rump - forthcoming - Digital Society.details
    This paper articulates a theoretical approach to the question of which aspects of higher education should incorporate AI large language models (LLMs) and which should not, using ideas from recent work in the epistemology of understanding. I exploit an extended analogy between walking and driving, using it to reject two extreme positions: the technophobic position (walking is aways better and one should never drive; LLMs have no place in higher ed) and the technophilic position (driving is always better and we (...) no longer need to practice walking; we should completely reorient higher ed by incorporating AI as much as possible). I also use the driving and walking analogy to caution that changes to our epistemic practices in light of AI must take account of their embeddedness in broader educational infrastructures—especially limitations imposed by administrators. While LLMs may have changed our epistemic practices aimed at knowledge, and thus even changed what we take knowledge to be, they have not and cannot effect a parallel change in understanding. Focusing on understanding rather than knowledge can help us avoid the rush to problematic, short-term solutions, and instead find a thoughtful middle ground between technophobia and technophilia. This will involve a partial reorientation away from the focus on content and the mastery of factual information, and toward a focus on skills of understanding. I give an account of understanding as a grasping of nonpropositional structure, and show how this is of special relevance for the situational, contextual, and analogical thinking higher education ought to promote. Finally, I home in on one particular such skill: questioning. (shrink)
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  17. Practical Understanding, Rationality, and Social Critique.Karl Schafer - forthcoming - In Carla Bagnoli & Stefano Bacin, Reason, Agency and Ethics. New Perspectives on Kantian Constitutivism. Oxford: Oxford University Press.details
    In this essay, I will outline a novel strategy for using constitutivist ideas from Kantian metaethics to critique social practices and institutions. In doing so, I do not mean to defend this model of critique as the only viable form of social and political critique, even within a Kantian framework – nor, indeed, as always the most appropriate. But I hope to show that it provides us with a form of critique that allows us to (i) develop a robust critique (...) of many social practices (ii) on both epistemic and practical grounds, while nonetheless (iii) beginning from a perspective that is, in some sense, internal – or better, immanent – to the practice in question. Thus, if we are looking for a form of social critique that is neither purely epistemic nor merely external – which, in other words, allows us to critique social practices on something like their own terms as practically irrational – this method should be attractive for philosophers with Kantian (or post-Kantian) sympathies. At the heart of this conception of critique lies in the idea that social practices may be thought of as attempts at (some form of) collective practical understanding. As I will explain more below, this way of thinking about the rationality of social practices may be seen as the product of applying a general (post-Kantian) model of rationality, which I have developed elsewhere, to the rationality of social collectives or practices. (shrink)
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  18. Stakes and Understanding the Decisions of Artificial Intelligent Systems.Eva Schmidt - forthcoming - In Juan Manuel Durán & Giorgia Pozzi, Philosophy of science for machine learning: Core issues and new perspectives. Springer. pp. 221-242.details
    Explainable artificial intelligence (XAI) aims to overcome the opacity of black box systems, i.e., to make them understandable to suitable stakeholders. In this chapter, I investigate how understanding depends on how much is at stake in a context. I support the intuition that understanding is sensitive to the stakes with a pair of cases. I further use this pair of cases to spell out how exactly the stakes affect understanding, particularly, outright understanding why. To do so, I connect discussions of (...) the concept of understanding with debates on pragmatic encroachment and on inductive risk. I zoom in on one necessary condition on understanding specifically, viz. the epistemic justification condition, according to which the beliefs involved in understanding have to be supported by sufficient evidence and have to cohere sufficiently well. I argue that, where the stakes are high, there are more stringent standards for sufficient evidence and coherence, and that this explains the stakes-sensitivity of understanding. (shrink)
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  19. Grasp as a universal requirement for understanding.Michael Strevens - forthcoming - Philosophical Studies.details
    Many varieties of understanding subsist in a thinker’s having the right kind of mental connection to a certain body of fact (or putative fact), a connection often called “grasp”. The use of a single term suggests a single connection that does the job in every kind of understanding. Then again, “grasp” might be an umbrella term covering a diverse plurality of understanding-granting mind-world relations. This paper argues for the former, unified view of grasp in two ways. First, it advances a (...) broad, ability-based construal of grasp, along with a test for lack of grasp, that suggests that a certain specific connection plays an essential role in many varieties of understanding. Second, the paper considers a number of challenges to the thesis of unity that arise in a range of different kinds of understanding (scientific, moral, objectual, humanistic), and seeks to disarm them. (shrink)
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  20. Explanation Hacking: The perils of algorithmic recourse.E. Sullivan & Atoosa Kasirzadeh - forthcoming - In Juan Manuel Durán & Giorgia Pozzi, Philosophy of science for machine learning: Core issues and new perspectives. Springer.details
    We argue that the trend toward providing users with feasible and actionable explanations of AI decisions—known as recourse explanations—comes with ethical downsides. Specifically, we argue that recourse explanations face several conceptual pitfalls and can lead to problematic explanation hacking, which undermines their ethical status. As an alternative, we advocate that explanations of AI decisions should aim at understanding.
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       5 citations  
  21. Value encroachment on scientific understanding and discovery.Emily Sullivan - forthcoming - Philosophical Studies.details
    Most agree that science is in some way informed by values, especially when it comes to using a model. However, whether values in science impact epistemology remains controversial. _Prima facie_ scientific knowledge impurism seems untenable (Gerken, 2018 ). Does the same hold for scientific _understanding_ impurism? In this paper, I put forward the dependency-impurism view of scientific understanding where non-epistemic values encroach on the dependency models that underly scientific understanding. I argue that dependency-impurism does not face the same worries that (...) scientific knowledge impurism may have. I discuss the larger implications dependency-impurism has for scientific understanding, discovery, and machine learning in science. (shrink)
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  22. Do ML models represent their targets?Emily Sullivan - forthcoming - Philosophy of Science.details
    I argue that ML models used in science function as highly idealized toy models. If we treat ML models as a type of highly idealized toy model, then we can deploy standard representational and epistemic strategies from the toy model literature to explain why ML models can still provide epistemic success despite their lack of similarity to their targets.
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       2 citations  
  23. Idealization in Moral Understanding: Grasping Less but Acting Better.Maria Waggoner - forthcoming - Episteme.details
    Moral understanding has typically been defined as grasping the explanation, q, for some proposition, p, where p states that some action is morally right (or wrong). This article deals with an underdiscussed point within the literature on moral understanding: the degree of moral understanding one has deepens with the more moral reasons that one grasps, whereby these reasons not only consist of those that speak in favor of an action’s moral permissibility but also those speaking against. I argue for a (...) surprising and important implication of this: having a deep degree of moral understanding can make it harder to carry out the right action. Furthermore, I propose that we should think of our pursuit of moral understanding in an analogous way as to how some have thought of scientific understanding: There may be good reasons to fail to appreciate all of the actual moral reasons that in fact exist; sometimes we should seek a surfaced-level moral understanding instead of something deeper. Just as idealizations used within science – which can involve deviations from the truth – can help us achieve scientific understanding, so too we might restrict the moral reasons that we seek to grasp in pursuit of moral understanding. (shrink)
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  24. Understanding Biology with Machine learning: Compression, Intelligibility, and Dependency.Adham El Shazly, Matthew Greenig, Chaitanya Joshi, Srijit Seal & Elsa Lawrence - 2026 - Artificial Intelligence in the Life Sciences 9 (100161):1-6.details
    Machine learning (ML) is increasingly used to interrogate biological systems whose complexity resists law-like, deductive explanation. As a result, embeddings, clusters, and attributions are often overinterpreted, dependencies are left implicit, and claims about explainability are often insufficiently bounded. In this work, we present a framework for contextualizing how machine learning contributes to scientific understanding in biology via compression, qualitative intelligibility, and dependency models. Compression is achieved when inductive biases encode biological structure, reducing the effective hypothesis space and yielding representations aligned (...) with known biology. Qualitative intelligibility is supported when high-dimensional measurements are mapped to human-graspable objects, such as embeddings, clusters, and trajectories, that enable accurate qualitative reasoning without exact calculation. Dependency modelling is realized when learned models make explicit the pattern of relations among system components and thereby guide prediction and intervention. We examine how these principles manifest in successful ML applications and discuss considerations that emerge from this framework. Overall, when viewed through these lenses, ML can transform predictive success into intervention-guiding knowledge in the life sciences. (shrink)
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  25. A portrait of understanding as a non-factive state.Ylwa Sjölin Wirling - 2026 - Asian Journal of Philosophy 5 (32):1-24.details
    Often, inquirers who do not know the right answer to a question they are inquiring into are nevertheless in a position to grasp a range of possible answers to it. This article proposes that such inquirers are in a position to have a particular form of understanding: non-factive objectual understanding. The state differs from non-factive states discussed in the extant understanding literature by focusing on grasping of multiple accounts that are all live possibilities. Non-factive objectual understanding is an epistemic improvement (...) that primarily enriches the subject’s grasp on the target phenomenon. Once the contours and the value of this state are made clearer, its importance in accounting for nuances of epistemic progress in many different contexts also emerges—including, but not limited to, progress made in inquiries where knowledge and factive understanding is, practically or as a matter of principle, out of reach. (shrink)
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  26. Instrumental understanding.Oscar Westerblad - 2026 - Synthese.details
    The sciences improve by extending our sensory and cognitive abilities through extrapolation, conversion, and augmentation, as Paul Humphreys has argued. While the opacity of some epistemic enhancers may challenge certain kinds of scientific understanding, I argue that such enhancement is compatible with and extends pragmatic understanding. Drawing on and developing aspects of an epistemology for instruments, I suggest that instrumental functions provide the grounds for extending pragmatic understanding when an inquiry procedure can rely on the instrument’s function to achieve some (...) aim. By continually improving and extending our abilities by relying on instruments, the sciences improve our understanding of the world by extending and enhancing our practical and instrumental facility with it. (shrink)
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  27. Afro-Latinx, Hispanic and Latinx Identity: Understanding the Americas.Eric Bayruns Garcia - 2025 - Critical Philosophy of Race 13 (1):95-120.details
    I present a novel position vis-à-vis the views in the Latin American philosophy literature regarding whether subjects more aptly use "Hispanic" or "Latinx" to refer to Hispanic- or-Latinx people. To this end, I will argue (C) the term "Afro-Latinx" is more apt than "Hispanic" or "Latinx" in a significant number of cases. This conclusion is based on three premises. The first premise (P1) is that use of "Afro-Latinx" provides subjects with understanding of how certain events depend on anti-Black racism, US (...) society's racially unjust structure and US colonial policy. The second premise (P2) is that that neither the term "Hispanic" nor the term "Latinx" provide subjects with this understanding of how certain events depend on anti-Black racism, US society's racially unjust structure and US colonial policy. The third premise (P3) is that the term "Afro-Latinx" provides subjects with more understanding of these events than the terms, "Hispanic" and "Latinx.” I present three cases which feature the experiences of Afro-Dominican people. The 1992 murder of Dominican man Kiko García by New York Police officer O’Keefe is first case. The second case is the Washington Heights Uprising that ensued Kiko García’ murder. An instance where a nightclub bouncer in the Dominican Republic denies a Dominican women entry because of her hair texture composes the third case. (shrink)
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  28. The Idea of Latin American Refugees and Understanding the Moral Force of Their Asylum Claims.Eric Bayruns Garcia - 2025 - In Adam Burgos, Philosophizing Contestation: Refusal, Disobedience, Resistance, Decolonization. Bloomsbury Academic.details
    I consider the question of why Latin American refugees often fail to transmit understanding of the strength of the moral demand on US agents, legislators and administrators to provide them with refuge in the US. To answer this question, I present two forms of hermeneutical injustice that are novel with respect to the epistemic injustice literature. These forms of hermeneutical injustice are what I call misleading resource injustice and psychological commitment injustice. I submit that these two kinds of hermeneutical injustice (...) put into view a dual remedy that involves, on the one hand, diversifying news organizations that populate the social imaginary with interpretative resources and, on the other hand, promoting the number of non-dominant group-controlled news organizations. (shrink)
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  29. A Phenomenal Theory of Grasping and Understanding.David Bourget - 2025 - In Andrei Ionuț Mărăşoiu & Mircea Dumitru, Understanding and conscious experience: philosophical and scientific perspectives. New York, NY: Routledge.details
    There is a difference between merely thinking that P and really grasping that P. For example, Jackson's (1982) black-and-white Mary cannot (before leaving her black-and-white room) fully grasp what it means to say that fire engines are red, but she can perfectly well entertain the thought that fire engines are red. The contrast between merely thinking and grasping is especially salient in the context of certain moral decisions. For example, an individual who grasps the plight of starving children thanks to (...) evocative images seems much more likely to donate for the children's benefit than someone who is merely told about their plight. This paper offers a phenomenal account of grasping according to which grasping a content (whether a proposition or concept) consists in one's thoughts about the content being constituted by phenomenal experiences of constituents of the content. This account improves on earlier phenomenal accounts of grasping (Bourget 2017a, 2018) by allowing for partial grasping and generalizing to concepts. The paper also addresses objections to phenomenal accounts of grasping, including the objection that recent developments in AI technology show that consciousness is irrelevant to grasping and understanding. (shrink)
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       2 citations  
  30. Why Natural Language Processing is Not Reading: Two Philosophical Distinctions and their Educational Import.Carolyn Culbertson - 2025 - Journal of Applied Hermeneutics 2025.details
    This paper explores two important ways in which the practice of close reading differs from the technique of natural language processing, the use of computer programming to decode, process, and replicate messages within a human language. It does so in order to highlight distinctive features of close reading that are not replicated by natural language processing. The first point of distinction concerns the nature of the meaning generated in each case. While natural language processing proceeds on the principle that a (...) text’s meaning can be deciphered by applying the rules governing the language in which the text is written, close reading is premised on the idea that this meaning lies in the interplay that the text prompts within readers. While the semantic theory of meaning upon which natural language processing programs are based is often taken for granted today, I draw from phenomenological and hermeneutic theories, particularly Wolfgang Iser and Hans-Georg Gadamer, to explain why a different theory of meaning is necessary for understanding the meaning generated by close reading. Second, while natural language processing programs are considered successful when they generate what epistemologists call true beliefs about a text, I argue that close reading aims first and foremost at the development, not of true belief, but of understanding. To develop this distinction, I draw from recent scholarship on the epistemology of education, including work by Duncan Pritchard, to explain how understanding differs from true belief and why attainment of the latter is less educationally significant than the former. (shrink)
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       1 citation  
  31. Psychotherapy as a folk-psychological practice: Therapeutic mindreading and mindshaping.J. P. Grodniewicz - 2025 - In Tad Zawidzki & Rémi Tison, Routledge Handbook of Mindshaping.details
    Most psychotherapeutic approaches are, to a greater or lesser extent, rooted in the theories and principles of scientific psychology. Nevertheless, in-session psychotherapeutic interaction between a therapist and a client is, at its core, a folk-psychological practice. As such, it is based on folk-psychological skills and competencies. But which ones exactly? This chapter argues that, while we may initially be inclined to perceive the practice of psychotherapy as primarily involving sophisticated mindreading on the part of both the therapist and the client/patient, (...) a complete characterization of psychotherapy must give at least the same amount of attention to different forms of therapeutic mindshaping. Using examples drawn from multiple therapeutic traditions, I illustrate how therapeutic mindreading and mindshaping interact. I conclude by highlighting some of the consequences of this perspective for the ethics and politics of psychotherapy. (shrink)
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  32. Understanding and Testimony.Allan Hazlett - 2025 - In Jennifer Lackey & Aidan McGlynn, The Oxford Handbook of Social Epistemology. New York, NY, United States of America: Oxford University Press.details
    Can understanding be transmitted by testimony, in the same sense that propositional knowledge can be transmitted by testimony? Some contemporary philosophers – call them testimonial understanding pessimists – say No, and others – call them testimonial understanding optimists – say Yes. In this chapter I will articulate testimonial understanding pessimism (§1) and consider some arguments for it (§2).
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       4 citations  
  33. Testimony, Understanding, and Art Criticism.Allan Hazlett - 2025 - In Alex King, Art and Philosophy: Essays at the Intersection. OUP.details
    I present a puzzle – the “puzzle of aesthetic testimony” – along with a solution to it that appeals to the impossibility of testimonial understanding. I'll criticize this solution by defending the possibility of testimonial understanding, including testimonial aesthetic understanding.
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       5 citations  
  34. Grasping a proposition.Xingming Hu - 2025 - Synthese 206 (3):1-14.details
    Teachers strive to help students grasp significant propositions beyond merely knowing their content. The phenomenal theory holds that grasping a proposition requires corresponding phenomenal experiences, such as visualizing or perceiving its referents. We argue against this theory and propose an alternative: One grasps that p if and only if one mentally processes p in a way that enables relevant counterfactual reasoning about it. This account not only explains intuitive cases of grasping without phenomenal experiences but also clarifies the precise epistemic (...) role of such experiences. Finally, we demonstrate the practical value of our account by showing how it can be applied to assess students’ grasp of philosophical propositions. (shrink)
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  35. A Carnapian Vision for Philosophy: Improving Concepts for Non-mirroring Understanding.Eve Kitsik - 2025 - In Darren Bradley, Philosophical Methodology After Carnap. Springer. pp. 251-267.details
    I develop a Carnapian view on the epistemic value of a central philosophical enterprise: making our ordinary messy concepts more orderly. Drawing on recent accounts of non-factive understanding, I propose that orderly concepts contribute to the “non-mirroring” (or subject-fitting, as opposed to object-fitting) aspect of understanding. This account allows us to make sense of the epistemic value of an important part of philosophy from a metaphysically anti-realist perspective and to explain how philosophy can make progress, although philosophers fail to converge (...) on the same answers to philosophical questions. (shrink)
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  36. ChatGPT, Education, and Understanding.Federica Isabella Malfatti - 2025 - Social Epistemology.details
    Is ChatGPT a good teacher? Or could it be? As understanding is widely acknowledged as one of the fundamental aims of education, the answer to these questions depends on whether ChatGPT fosters or could foster the acquisition of understanding in its users. In this paper, I tackle this issue in two steps. In the first part of the paper, I explore and analyze the set of skills and social-epistemic virtues that a teacher must exemplify to perform her job well – (...) in those contexts in which epistemic aims are at play and in which understanding plays a pivotal role. In the second part of the paper, I put my conception of good teacher to test and deal with the question whether, and to which extent, the software ChatGPT is (or could serve as, if suitably modified or fine-tuned) a good teacher for its users. I close with some final reflections that point to further directions of research. -/- . (shrink)
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  37. Understanding and conscious experience: philosophical and scientific perspectives.Andrei Ionuț Mărăşoiu & Mircea Dumitru (eds.) - 2025 - New York, NY: Routledge.details
    This volume explores how understanding relates to conscious experience. In doing so, it builds bridges between different philosophical disciplines and provides a metaphysically robust characterization of understanding, both in and beyond science. The past two decades have witnessed growing interest from epistemologists, philosophers of science, philosophers of mind, and ethicists in the nature and value of intellectual understanding. This volume features original essays on understanding and the phenomenal experiences that underlie it. The chapters are divided into three thematic sections. Part (...) 1 provides theoretical characterizations of understanding, including Henk de Regt's defense of a contextual theory of scientific understanding and a debate whether scientific inference and explanatory power are necessary or central features of understanding. Part 2 explores how conscious experience and understanding are related. The chapters articulate a phenomenal theory of understanding and address themes that are connected to understanding, including awareness, transformative experiences, and exemplification. Finally, Part 3 is devoted to domain-specific inquiries about understanding, such as logical proofs, particle physics and moral understanding. Understanding and Conscious Experience will be of interest to scholars and advanced students working in philosophy of science, epistemology, philosophy of mind, ethics, and phenomenology. (shrink)
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  38. Compressing Graphs: a Model for the Content of Understanding.Felipe Morales Carbonell - 2025 - Erkenntnis 90 (1).details
    In this paper, I sketch a new model for the format of the content of understanding states, Compressible Graph Maximalism (CGM). In this model, the format of the content of understanding is graphical, and compressible. It thus combines ideas from approaches that stress the link between understanding and holistic structure (like as reported by Grimm (in: Ammon SGCBS (ed) Explaining Understanding: New Essays in Epistemollogy and the Philosophy of Science, Routledge, New York, 2016)), and approaches that emphasize the connection between (...) understanding and compression (like Wilkenfeld (Synthese 190(6):997–1016, 2018)). I argue that the combination of these ideas has several attractive features, and I defend the idea against some challenges. (shrink)
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  39. Beyond Dichotomies: Empathy and Listening in Deliberative Democracy.Katharina Anna Sodoma & Daniel Sharp - 2025 - Political Communication 42:1-20.details
    In Beyond Empathy and Inclusion: The Challenge of Listening in Deliberative Democracy, Mary F. Scudder defends a listening-based approach to deliberative democracy. On this account, democratic legitimacy requires that citizens listen to each other’s deliberative contributions to give them fair consideration. She opposes this listening-based approach to a recent “empathic turn” in deliberative democratic theory, which emphasizes the importance of imaginative perspective-taking in democratic deliberation. Scudder develops an incisive critique of relying on empathy in democratic deliberation. According to her argument, (...) our capacity to empathize is severely limited, and empathy cannot replace, but only distort listening. This argument suggests that we should listen rather than empathize in democratic deliberation. In this paper, we challenge the implicit assumption that empathy and listening must be regarded as mutually exclusive alternatives. We argue that empathy still has an important place within a listening-centric approach to democracy because empathy can improve listening broadly understood, according to its own inherent aim of ensuring fair consideration. Specifically, we identify three constructive roles that empathy can play in facilitating democratic listening: it can help us to understand what someone has said, see where someone is coming from, and promote mutual understanding. We argue that recognizing these constructive roles for empathy in democratic deliberation is compatible with acknowledging empathy’s limits and accepting that we should sometimes prefer listening without empathy. Ceasing to conceive of empathy and listening as mutually exclusive options opens up new questions and we close by discussing some potential directions of future study. (shrink)
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  40. Truth, understanding, and normativity in scientific models.Lorenzo Spagnesi - 2025 - Synthese 206 (1):1-25.details
    Scientific models often contain assumptions known not to be true. Despite being false representations, models provide us with a key understanding of phenomena. What is more, the falsehoods that figure in models are in many cases central to them, and there is no available alternative to their use. If falsehoods play such an irreplaceable role in our understanding of phenomena, it would seem that truth is not a key concern of scientific modeling. In this paper, I assess the prospects and (...) challenges of reconciling truth and understanding in scientific modeling. More specifically, I review a thesis recently emerging in the literature, what I shall call the Derivation Thesis (DT), according to which we use models to derive true information. First, I examine different versions of the thesis and develop what I take to be its most promising formulation (what I call the generalized DT). Second, I discuss a serious challenge to the generalized DT. I consider a thought experiment in which an unreliable astrological model gives true explanations by fluke. This scenario challenges the idea that models can provide genuine understanding by generating truths. In response, I argue that genuine scientific models also fulfill a specific normative role that epistemically lucky models lack (what I call the normative generalized DT). I test this hypothesis by analysing how the Ideal Gas Law advances scientific understanding of real gases. (shrink)
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  41. What's Love (And Belonging) Got to do With It? Negative and Positive Conative Elements Underlying Gritty Faith.Maria Waggoner - 2025 - Faith and Philosophy 41 (2):223-238.details
    There has been near unanimous agreement that faith requires having some sort of positive attitude towards the object of faith. This thesis has recently been called into question by the lone wolf, Malcolm & Scott (2021), who propose a substitute property of true grit. This paper argues that substituting the element of grit leaves an explanatory gap when it comes to explaining why one has faith; a conative attitude must underride one’s grit. Yet, it seems to me that a positive (...) conative attitude towards the proposition in question is not required. The present account proposes that there are some cases of propositional faith where the object one’s conative attitude is not the proposition itself, but a person or group that one loves, belongs to, or identifies with. Lastly, it’s argued that a negative conative attitude, rather than strictly positive, can also explain grit and its role within propositional faith. (shrink)
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  42. Scientific Understanding Beyond Representing: Lessons from Ian Hacking’s Work.Oscar Westerblad & Henk W. De Regt - 2025 - The Monist 108 (4):353–371.details
    We argue that Ian Hacking’s work on experimentation and styles of reasoning offers valuable insights for the current debate on the nature of scientific understanding, which so far has largely been focused on the role of theories and explanations. Hacking’s suggestion that reasoning not only involves thinking but also doing helps to recognise the role of experimentation and manipulation in scientific understanding. We apply this idea by relating Hacking’s views on explanation and theorising to the contextual theory of scientific understanding (...) developed by one of us (De Regt 2017). We then take a constructive approach by developing an account of pragmatic understanding that accommodates styles of reasoning and the centrality of manipulation and intervention in Hacking’s philosophy of science. Our overall aim in the paper is to bring the neglected role of experimentation in producing scientific understanding to the fore. We conclude by suggesting that scientific understanding involves both representing and intervening. (shrink)
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  43. Meaning, purpose, and narrative.Michael Zhao - 2025 - Noûs 59 (3):748-770.details
    According to many philosophers, “the meaning of life” refers to our cosmic purpose, the activity that we were created by God or a purposive universe to perform. If there is no God or teleology, there is no such thing as the meaning of life. But this need not be the last word on the matter. In this paper, I ask what the benefits provided by a cosmic purpose are, and go on to argue that thinking of our lives in a (...) particular way—in terms of a unified life narrative—can supply us with many of those benefits. We might lose little if there is no such thing as the meaning of life, since there is still something that can provide much of what is valuable about it. (shrink)
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  44. Is there a defensible conception of reflective equilibrium?Claus Beisbart & Georg Brun - 2024 - Synthese 203 (3):1-26.details
    The goal of this paper is to re-assess reflective equilibrium (“RE”). We ask whether there is a conception of RE that can be defended against the various objections that have been raised against RE in the literature. To answer this question, we provide a systematic overview of the main objections, and for each objection, we investigate why it looks plausible, on what standard or expectation it is based, how it can be answered and which features RE must have to meet (...) the objection. We find that there is a conception of RE that promises to withstand all objections. However, this conception has some features that may be unexpected: it aims at a justification that is tailored to understanding and it is neither tied to intuitions nor does it imply coherentism. We conclude by pointing out a cluster of questions we think RE theorists should pay more attention to. (shrink)
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  45. Understanding friendship.Michel Croce & Matthew Jope - 2024 - Philosophical Issues 34 (1):371-386.details
    This article takes issue with two prominent views in the current debate around epistemic partiality in friendship. Strong views of epistemic partiality hold that friendship may require biased beliefs in direct conflict with epistemic norms. Weak views hold that friendship may place normative expectations on belief formation but in a manner that does not violate these norms. It is argued that neither view succeeds in explaining the relationship between epistemic norms and friendship norms. Weak views inadvertently endorse a form of (...) motivated reasoning, failing to resolve the normative clash they seek to avoid. Strong views turn out to be incoherent once we consider the question of whether the requirement to form an epistemically partial belief is independent of whether the belief in question would be true. It is then argued that an epistemology of friendship should recognise the special role that understanding plays in friendship. On this view, friendship normatively requires understanding the truth about our friends. This entails that epistemic partiality, far from being a requirement, is in fact at odds with good friendship. (shrink)
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  46. What is philosophical progress?Finnur Dellsén, Tina Firing, Insa Lawler & James Norton - 2024 - Philosophy and Phenomenological Research 2:663-693.details
    What is it for philosophy to make progress? While various putative forms of philosophical progress have been explored in some depth, this overarching question is rarely addressed explicitly, perhaps because it has been assumed to be intractable or unlikely to have a single, unified answer. In this paper, we aim to show that the question is tractable, that it does admit of a single, unified answer, and that one such answer is plausible. This answer is, roughly, that philosophical progress consists (...) in putting people in a position to increase their understanding, where ‘increased understanding’ is a matter of better representing the network of dependence relations between phenomena. After identifying four desiderata for an account of philosophical progress, we argue that our account meets the desiderata in a particularly satisfying way. Among other things, the account explains how various other achievements, such as philosophical arguments, counterexamples, and distinctions, may contribute to progress. Finally, we consider the implications of our account for the pressing and contentious question of how much progress has been made in philosophy. (shrink)
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       19 citations  
  47. Being understood.Samuel Dishaw - 2024 - Philosophical Issues 34 (1):184-195.details
    Philosophical work in the ethics of thought focuses heavily on the ethics of belief, with, in recent years, a particular emphasis on the ways in which we might wrong other people either through our beliefs about them, or our failure to believe what they tell us. Yet in our own lives we often want not merely to be believed, but rather to be understood by others. What does it take to understand another person? In this paper, I provide an account (...) of interpersonal understanding that speaks to this widespread human desire to be understood by others. On the view I defend, to be understood by another person is for them to see our motivating reasons as justifying reasons, whether or not they actually take our reasons to have that normative force. I then provide an explanation of why such understanding is valuable in our lives, which emphasizes how being understood by another person is a way of being more fully with them. (shrink)
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  48. The Object of Moral Understanding.Samuel Dishaw - 2024 - Ergo: An Open Access Journal of Philosophy 11.details
    In the recent literatures in which moral understanding has played a starring role, it is assumed that moral understanding is a species of explanatory understanding. That is, it is assumed that instances of moral understanding are of the form ‘S understands why p,’ where p is some explicitly moral proposition, paradigmatically about an action being morally right or wrong. This paper highlights some shortcomings of this explanatory picture of moral understanding and articulates a different, complementary account on which the object (...) of moral understanding is the relation of normative support between a proposition and an action. (shrink)
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  49. Empiricism bad, knowledge good, understanding better?: Alexander Bird: Knowing science. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2022, 304 pp, £78 HB. [REVIEW]Nicholas Emmerson - 2024 - Metascience 33 (3).details
  50. Autonomy as Practical Understanding.Reza Hadisi - 2024 - Ergo: An Open Access Journal of Philosophy 11.details
    In this paper, I offer a theory of autonomous agency that relies on the re-sources of a strongly cognitivist theory of intention and intentional action. On the proposed account, intentional action is a graded notion that is ex-plained via the agent’s degree of practical knowledge. In turn, autonomous agency is also a graded notion that is explained via the agent’s degree of practical understanding. The resulting theory can synthesize insights from both the hierarchical and the cognitivist theories of autonomy with (...) at least some aspects of the reason-responsiveness theories. Moreover, by treating practical knowledge and practical understanding as gradable no-tions, the paper offers a strategy to respond to enduring objections against cognitivism about intention, control, and autonomy. (shrink)
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