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URL: https://huji.academia.edu/BBrown

โ‡ฑ Benjamin Brown - The Hebrew University of Jerusalem


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Papers by Benjamin Brown

Oxford Handbook of Jewish Philosophy, 2026
In the 18th century, long after the battle between Jewish philosophy and Kabbalah was ended with ... more In the 18th century, long after the battle between Jewish philosophy and Kabbalah was ended with a clear victory to the latter, the Kabbalah's socio-cultural hegemony began to meet some challenges as the maskilim endeavoured to revive the interest in Jewish philosophy as a legitimate field of study. The majority of the rabbinic leadership objected to this change. Some of the rabbis remained loyal to the Kabbalah, while a growing number of them began to develop another ideal of faith, neither philosophical nor Kabbalistic: the ideal of โ€œsimple faithโ€.
Most of its proponents of this old-new Jewish fideism, however, did not embrace a symmetric attitude towards the two: They admired the Kabbalah from afar, but despised philosophy. Without knowing much of its recent developments, pre-Orthodox and early Orthodox authors generally represented a clear position of distance, if not genuine aversion, from, โ€œthe accursed philosophyโ€ (to use Vilna Gaon's words). With the exclusion of only a small number of exceptions, the Hasidic and Mitnagdic circles agreed with this position.
Only with the growth of neo-Orthodoxy in Germany in the second half of the 19th century, and with the growth of religious Zionism in the early 20th century, new ideological camps were created that defended, respected, studied, and even sought to further develop Jewish philosophy. In Eastern European and Hungarian Orthodoxy, from which Haredi Judaism would later develop in the Western world, this distrust towards philosophy was continued, and even sharpened. While this struggle against philosophy - including the rank ignorance of its contents โ€“ can certainly be understood as an expression of self-seclusion and obscurantism, it can also be perceived as faithโ€™s declaration of independence. The new Jewish fideism, which placed the value of simple faith at center stage, stated that it was no longer in need of rational proofs to substantiate the faith; religious belief was irrational and not subject to rational examination.
ืฆื‘ื™ ืชืคืืจื” - ืžื—ืงืจื™ื ืžื•ื’ืฉื™ื ืœืคืจื•ืค' ืฆื‘ื™ ื–ื•ื”ืจ ืœืจื’ืœ ืคืจื™ืฉืชื• ืžื”ื•ืจืื”, 2026
ืžืชื•ืš ืคืจืง ื”ืกื™ื›ื•ื ืฉืœ ื”ืžืืžืจ "ืขืœ ืคื™ ื”ืกื•ื“, ื•ื–ื” ืขื™ืงืจ": ืขืœ ืžืงื•ืžื” ืฉืœ ื”ืงื‘ืœื” ื‘ืคืกื™ืงืช ืจ' ื™ื•ืกืฃ ื—ื™ื™ื: ืจืื™ื ื• ... more ืžืชื•ืš ืคืจืง ื”ืกื™ื›ื•ื ืฉืœ ื”ืžืืžืจ
"ืขืœ ืคื™ ื”ืกื•ื“, ื•ื–ื” ืขื™ืงืจ": ืขืœ ืžืงื•ืžื” ืฉืœ ื”ืงื‘ืœื” ื‘ืคืกื™ืงืช ืจ' ื™ื•ืกืฃ ื—ื™ื™ื:
ืจืื™ื ื• ื›ื™ ืจื™"ื— ื”ื•ื ื—ืกื™ื“ ื ืœื”ื‘ ืฉืœ ืžื’ืžืช ืฉื™ืœื•ื‘ ื”ืงื‘ืœื” ื‘ื”ืœื›ื”: ื”ื•ื ืžื›ื ื™ืก ืืช ื”ื•ืจืื•ืช ื”ืงื‘ืœื” ืœืขืฉืจื•ืช ืจื‘ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ื•ืจืื•ืช ื”ืœื›ืชื™ื•ืช ื›ืžืงื•ืจ ืžืจื›ื–ื™ ื•ืžื›ืจื™ืข; ื”ื•ื ื“ื•ื—ื” ืืช ื”ื•ืจืื•ืช ื’ื“ื•ืœื™ ื”ืคื•ืกืงื™ื ื•ืืช ื”ื•ืจืื•ืช ื”ืžื ื”ื’ ืžืคื ื™ ื“ื‘ืจื™ ื”ื–ื•ื”ืจ ื•ื”ืืจ"ื™; ื•ื”ื•ื ืืฃ ืžื•ื›ืŸ, ืœืจื•ื‘ ื‘ืœื ื”ื™ืกื•ืก, ืœื“ื—ื•ืช ื’ื ืืช ื”ื•ืจืื•ืช ืžืจืŸ ืจ' ื™ื•ืกืฃ ืงืืจื• ืžืคื ื™ื”ืŸ.
ืื•ืœื ืจื™"ื— ืœื ื”ืกืชืคืง ื‘ื›ืš. ื‘ื ื•ืกืฃ ืœืคืกื™ืงืช ื”ื”ืœื›ื” ืขืœ ืคื™ ื”ื•ืจืื•ืช ื”ืงื‘ืœื” ื”ื•ื ื’ื ื ืชืŸ ืœืงื”ืœ ืžืื–ื™ื ื™ื•, ื•ืœืื—ืจ ืžื›ืŸ ืœืงื”ืœ ืงื•ืจืื™ื•, ื”ืงื“ืžื” ืงื‘ืœื™ืช ืœื›ืœ ืžืฆื•ื•ื” ืฉื“ืŸ ื‘ื”, ื”ืงื“ืžื” ืฉื ืชื ื” ืœื” ืจื•ื— ืื—ืจืช, ื—ื•ื•ื™ื™ืชื™ืช ื™ื•ืชืจ. ืื ืœื ื“ื™ ื‘ื›ืš, ื’ื ื‘ืชื•ืš ื“ื™ื•ื ื• ื‘ืžืฆื•ื•ืช ืžืกื•ื™ึธืžื•ืช ื”ื•ื ืกื˜ื” ืœื ืื—ืช ืžืŸ ื”ื”ืชืžืงื“ื•ืช ื‘ืฆื“ ื”ืžืขืฉื™ ื•ืขื‘ืจ ืœื“ืจื™ืฉื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื•ืช ื”ื ื•ื’ืขื•ืช ืœื›ื•ื•ื ื•ืช ื•ืœืžื—ืฉื‘ื•ืช ื”ืืžื•ืจื•ืช ืœืœื•ื•ืช ืืช ื”ืื“ื ืœืคื ื™ ื‘ื™ืฆื•ืข ื”ื”ื•ืจืื•ืช ื”ืžืขืฉื™ื•ืช ืื• ืชื•ืš ื›ื“ื™ ื‘ื™ืฆื•ืขืŸ. ื“ืจื™ืฉื•ืช ืืœื” ื”ื•ืคื ื• ืœืขืชื™ื ื’ื ืœื›ืœ "ืื™ืฉ ืคืฉื•ื˜" ื•ืœืขืชื™ื ืจื™"ื— ืืฃ ื”ื“ื’ื™ืฉ ื›ื™ ืžื“ื•ื‘ืจ ื‘ื›ื•ื•ื ื•ืช "ืคืฉื•ื˜ื•ืช" (ืœื ื‘ืžื•ื‘ืŸ ืฉืœ ืคืฉื˜, ืืœื ื‘ืžื•ื‘ืŸ ืฉืœ ืงืœื•ืช). ื‘ื›ืš, ื‘ืœื™ ืกืคืง, ื‘ื™ืงืฉ ืจื™"ื— ืœื”ื›ื ื™ืก ืœื ืจืง ืชื•ื›ืŸ ืงื‘ืœื™ึพื˜ื›ื ื™ ืืœื ื’ื ื—ื™ื•ึผืช ื—ื“ืฉื” ื‘ืงื™ื•ื ื”ืžืฆื•ื•ืช. ื”ื•ื ืืฃ ืขื•ื“ื“ ืžืื•ื“ ืืช ืœื™ืžื•ื“ ื”ืงื‘ืœื” ืœื›ืœ ื—ึธืคืฅ ื•ืจืื” ืœื™ืžื•ื“ ื–ื” ื›ื”ืฉืคืขื” ืฉืœ ืื•ืจื•ืช ื”ืžื•ื—ื™ืŸ ืฉื”ื™ื ื”ืฉืคืขื” ืฉืœ "ื—ื™ื™ื".
ืืช ื’ื™ืฉืชื• ื–ื• ื‘ื™ืงืฉ ืจื™"ื— ืœื”ื ื—ื™ืœ ื‘ืฉื ื™ ืขืจื•ืฆื™ื: ืžืฆื“ ืื—ื“ ื”ื•ื ื˜ื™ืคื— ืงื‘ื•ืฆื” ืฉืœ ืชืœืžื™ื“ื™ ื—ื›ืžื™ื ืžื•ื‘ื”ืงื™ื, ืื•ืชื ื”ื›ืฉื™ืจ ื‘ืฉื ื™ ื”ืžืงืฆื•ืขื•ืช ื”ืชื•ืจื ื™ื™ื ืฉืœ ืงื‘ืœื” ื•ื”ืœื›ื”, ื•ืขื•ื“ื“ ืืช ืชืœืžื™ื“ื™ื• ืืœื” ืœื”ืžืฉื™ืš ื‘ืžื’ืžืช ื”ืฉื™ืœื•ื‘ ื‘ื™ื ื™ื”ื. ืžืฆื“ ืื—ืจ, ื”ื•ื ืคื ื” ืืœ ื”ืžื•ื ื™ ื”ืขื ื‘ืฉืคืชื ื•ืชื‘ืข ื’ื ืžื”ื ืœืขืœื•ืช โ€“ ื›ืœ ืื—ื“ ืขืœ ืคื™ ืžื“ืจื’ืชื• โ€“ ื‘ืžืขืœื•ืช ื”ื”ืœื›ื” ื•ื”ืงื‘ืœื”. ืืช ื›ืœ ืืœื” ื”ื•ื ื ื”ื’ ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืงื‘ื•ืข ื•ืžืชืžื™ื“.
ื”ื ื—ืœืชื” ืฉืœ ื“ืจืš ื–ื• ื ืขืฉืชื” ื‘ืžื™ื“ื” ืจื‘ื” ื‘ื–ื›ื•ืช ื”ื›ืจื™ื–ืžื” ื”ืื™ืฉื™ืช ืฉืœ ืจื™"ื—. ื”ื•ื ื”ื™ื” ื‘ืขืœ ืฉืœื™ื˜ื” ื™ื•ืฆืืช ื“ื•ืคืŸ ื‘ื›ืœ ืžืงืฆื•ืขื•ืช ื”ืชื•ืจื”, ื ืขื™ื ืกึตื‘ืจ, ื‘ืขืœ ื™ื™ื—ื•ืก ืื‘ื•ืช, ืžืจืฉื™ื ื‘ื”ื•ืคืขืชื• ื”ื—ื™ืฆื•ื ื™ืช ื•ื‘ืขืœ ื›ื•ืฉืจ ื‘ื™ื˜ื•ื™ ืžืฆื•ื™ืŸ. ื”ื•ื ืœื ื”ื™ื” ืฉื™ื™ืš ืœืžืžืกื“ ื”ืงื”ื™ืœืชื™: ื”ื•ื ืœื ื ืฉื ื‘ืฉื•ื ืžืฉืจื” ืจืฉืžื™ืช ื•ืœื ื”ื™ื” ืชืœื•ื™ ื‘ืจื‘ื ื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื ืื• ื‘ืขืฉื™ืจื™ ื”ืฆื™ื‘ื•ืจ. ืืช ื—ื›ืžืช ื”ืงื‘ืœื” ืœืžื“ ื›ื›ืœ ื”ื ืจืื” ื‘ื›ื•ื—ื•ืช ืขืฆืžื•. 
ื“ื•ืžื” ื›ื™ ืžืชื•ืš ื”ืžืงื•ื‘ืฅ ืขื•ืœื” ืชืžื•ื ื” ืžืขื ื™ื™ื ืช ื•ืื•ืœื™ ืžืคืชื™ืขื”: ืจื™"ื— ืœื ืจืื” ืขืฆืžื• ืจืง ื›ืžื™ ืฉืžืœืžื“ ืืช ื”ืขื ืชื•ืจื” ื•ืžื•ืจื” ืœื• ืืช ื”ื”ืœื›ื”, ืืœื ื›ืžื™ ืฉืืžื•ืจ ืœืขื•ืจืจ ืชื—ื™ื™ื” ืจื•ื—ื ื™ืช ื—ื“ืฉื”, ื‘ืจื•ื— ื”ืงื‘ืœื”, ื‘ืงืจื‘ ื”ืฆื™ื‘ื•ืจ ื”ืจื—ื‘. ืชื—ื™ื™ื” ืจื•ื—ื ื™ืช ื–ื• ืืžื•ืจื” ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืœื”ืฉืคื™ืข ืœื ืจืง ื‘ืจืžื” ื”ืจืขื™ื•ื ื™ืช ืืœื ื’ื ื‘ืจืžื” ื”ืžืขืฉื™ืช, ื•ืœืขืฆื‘ ืžื—ื“ืฉ ืืช ื—ื™ื™ื• ืฉืœ ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ื”ืžืืžื™ืŸ.
ื‘ื ืกื™ื‘ื•ืช ืื—ืจื•ืช, ืœื ืžืŸ ื”ื ืžื ืข ืฉืžืชื•ืš ืžื’ืžื” ื–ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื” ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืœืฆืžื•ื— ื’ื ืชื ื•ืขื” ืจื—ื‘ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ื”ืžืฆื™ื‘ื” ืชื—ื™ื™ื” ืจื•ื—ื ื™ืช ื–ื• ื›ื“ื’ืœ ื—ื‘ืจืชื™ ื›ืœืœื™, ืืš ื‘ืžืงืจื” ื–ื” ืœื ื”ืชืงื™ื™ืžื• ื”ืชื ืื™ื ืœื›ืš. ื”ื”ืฉื•ื•ืื” ื”ืžืชื‘ืงืฉืช ื›ืืŸ ื”ื™ื ืœื—ืกื™ื“ื•ืช, ืฉื’ื ื”ื™ื ื ืชืคืกื” ื›"ืงื‘ืœื” ืฉื”ืคื›ื” ืœืืชื•ืก", ื›ื“ื‘ืจื™ ืžืจื˜ื™ืŸ ื‘ื•ื‘ืจ,  ืืš ื”ืฉื•ื•ืื” ื‘ื™ืŸ ืฉืชื™ ื”ืชื•ืคืขื•ืช โ€“ ืฉืœื ื›ืืŸ ื”ืžืงื•ื ืœืขืจื›ื” ื‘ืคืจื•ื˜ืจื•ื˜ โ€“ ืชื’ืœื” ื›ื™ ืจื‘ ื”ืฉื•ื ื” ืžืŸ ื”ืžื—ื‘ืจ ื‘ื™ื ื™ื”ืŸ. ื‘ืกื•ืคื• ืฉืœ ื“ื‘ืจ, ื‘ื ื™ื’ื•ื“ ืœื—ืกื™ื“ื•ืช, ืœื ืงืžื• ืœืจื™"ื— ืžืžืฉื™ื›ื™ื ืฉื™ืฉืคื™ืขื• ืืช ืื•ืชื” ื”ืจื•ื— ืขืœ ื”ืฆื™ื‘ื•ืจ. ืชืœืžื™ื“ื™ื•, ื’ื“ื•ืœื™ื ื•ืžืจืฉื™ืžื™ื ื›ื›ืœ ืฉื™ื”ื™ื•, ืœื ื”ืฆื˜ื™ื™ื ื• ื‘ืื•ืชืŸ ืžืขืœื•ืช, ื•ื‘ืขื™ืงืจ ืœื ื‘ืื•ืชื” ื›ืจื™ื–ืžื”, ืืš ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื›ืš โ€“ ืœื ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ื‘ื”ื ืื•ืชื” ืฉืืคืชื ื•ืช ืœื”ืคืฆืช ื”ืจื•ื— ื”ื—ื“ืฉื” ื‘ืจื‘ื™ื. ืจื•ื‘ื ื”ื™ื• ื—ืœืง ืžืŸ ื”ืžืžืกื“ ื”ืงื”ื™ืœืชื™, ื•ืขืกืงื• ื‘ืขื™ืงืจ ื‘ื”ื•ืจืืช ื”ืœื›ื” ืื• ืงื‘ืœื” ื‘ืžืกืœื•ืœื™ื ื”ืžืกื•ืจืชื™ื™ื ื”ืžื•ื›ืจื™ื.
ื™ืชืจ ืขืœ ื›ืŸ, ื”ืขื•ื‘ื“ื” ืฉืจื™"ื— ื•ืชืœืžื™ื“ื™ื• ืœื ืคื™ืชื—ื• ืคืจืฉื ื•ืช ื—ื“ืฉื” ืœืงื‘ืœื” (ื›ืคื™ ืฉืขืฉืชื” ื”ื—ืกื™ื“ื•ืช ืœืžืฉืœ) ืืœื ื ืฉืืจื• ื‘ืกื•ืคื• ืฉืœ ื“ื‘ืจ ื‘ื“ืœ"ืช ืืžื•ืช ืฉืœ ืงื‘ืœืช ื”ืืจ"ื™ ื”ืงืœืกื™ืช ืžื ืขื” ืืช ื™ืฆื™ืจืชื” ืฉืœ ื–ื”ื•ืช ื ื‘ื“ืœืช. ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืคืจื“ื•ืงืกืœื™, ื’ื ื”ืขื•ื‘ื“ื” ืฉืœื ืงืžื• ืœืžื’ืžื” ื–ื• ืžืชื ื’ื“ื™ื ืฉืœ ืžืžืฉ ืขื“ ืœืžื—ืฆื™ืช ื”ืฉื ื™ื™ื” ืฉืœ ื”ืžืื” ื”ึพ20 โ€“ ืื– ื™ื™ืฆื’ ื”ืจื‘ ืขื•ื‘ื“ื™ื” ื™ื•ืกืฃ ืืช "ื”ืžื”ืคื›ื” ืฉื›ื ื’ื“" ืœื–ื• ืฉืœ ืจื™"ื— โ€“ ืชืจืžื” ืœื›ืš ืฉืœื ื™ื™ื•ื•ืฆืจื• ื’ื‘ื•ืœื•ืช ื–ื”ื•ืช ืœื‘ืขืœื™ ื”ืžื’ืžื” ื”ืงื‘ืœื™ืชึพื”ืœื›ืชื™ืช ืฉืœ ืจื™"ื—, ื•ื‘ืœื ื’ื‘ื•ืœื•ืช ื–ื”ื•ืช ืฉื›ืืœื” ืงืฉื” ืœื“ืžื™ื™ืŸ ืชื ื•ืขื”. ืื•ืœื ื’ื ื‘ืœื ืชื ื•ืขื” ื“ืชื™ืชึพื—ื‘ืจืชื™ืช ื”ืฆืœื™ื— ืจื™"ื— ืœื”ื‘ื™ื ืœืคื—ื•ืช ืœืžืงืฆืช ื”ื”ืชืขื•ืจืจื•ืช ื”ืจื•ื—ื ื™ืช ืื•ืชื” ืฉืืฃ ืœืคืชื—, ื•ื™ืฆื™ืจืชื• ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื”, ืฉื”ืžืฉื™ื›ื” ืœืฉืืช ืืช ื‘ืฉื•ืจืชื• ื’ื ืœืื—ืจ ืžื•ืชื•, ืžืžืฉื™ื›ื” ืœื”ืฉืคื™ืข ืขืœ ืขื•ืœื ื”ืจื•ื— ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ื‘ื”ืœื›ื”, ื‘ืงื‘ืœื” ื•ื‘ืฉื™ืœื•ื‘ ืฉื‘ื™ื ื™ื”ื.
ืžืื•ืจ ื•ืฉืžืฉ: ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื”, ื”ื’ื•ืช, ืกื™ืคื•ืจืช, ืžื•ืจืฉืช, 2024
The article's intruduction (in English translation): The nineteenth century deserves to be regar... more The article's intruduction (in English translation):
The nineteenth century deserves to be regarded as the โ€œgolden ageโ€ of Hasidism, not only in terms of its social strength, but also in terms of the ideological diversity it generated within its various currents. Over the course of that century, the movement underwent several notable transformations: the status of active mystical experience declined significantly, as did engagement with Kabbalah; in their place rose the value of โ€œsimple faith.โ€ In lieu of a mystical ideal, many Hasidic thinkers developed what may be called โ€œsubstitutes for mysticismโ€โ€”more moderate spiritual experiences that were linked, in one way or another, to the original mystical ideal. The status of Torah study and meticulous observance of the commandments increased; โ€œdangerousโ€ elements such as the descent of the tzaddiq and โ€˜aveirah li-shmah (transgression for the sake of Heaven) were softened, neutralized, and at times even disappeared; leadership began to be transmitted hereditarily; the type of the admor-poseq (Hasidic leader who was also an active halakhic decisor) emerged; Hasidic courts became centers of significant socio-political power; in many regions Hasidim became the majority; growing energies were invested in the struggle against the new Jewish modern movementsโ€”Haskalah, Zionism, secularization; and more. Inspired by Mendel Piekarz, we may call the ideological trend that accompanied these changes the โ€œheteronomic turn.โ€

In what follows, I wish to examine a relatively marginal intellectual dimension of this turn, one that concerns heteronomy in the narrower sense of the term. I refer to the question of the motivation for fulfilling โ€œrationalโ€ commandments. I shall focus the discussion on the commandment of charity (tzedakah). The basic question under consideration is: to what extent is it important to fulfill a commandment precisely โ€œbecause it was commanded by the Creator,โ€ that is, out of submission to the divine command and not out of moral recognition, inner desire, or a feeling of compassion?

Although this question has far less social weight than the processes described above, I believe it is interesting in purely theoretical terms and may also serve as an indicator of broader ideological-social developments. As I shall show below, such a heteronomic conception developed in early nineteenth-century Polish Hasidism, and among its leading exponents we may count R. Kalonymus Kalman Epstein of Krakow (Maโ€™or va-Shemesh, 1751โ€“1823) and R. Simแธฅah Bunem of Peshisแธฅah (1765โ€“1827). Both figures clearly preferred the fulfillment of the commandment of tzedakah โ€œbecause it was commanded by the Creatorโ€ over its fulfillment out of compassion, and all the more so over fulfillment based on a human moral imperative. Since similar conceptions developed among the founders of Jewish Orthodoxy in Hungary during those same years, it is worth examining the extent to which these two Hasidic tzaddiqim may be considered forerunners of Orthodoxy in Poland.

As hinted above, the term โ€œheteronomic turnโ€ uses the word heteronomy in a broad sense, indicating numerous changes across different domains. Yet in speaking of heteronomy in the present context, we shall employ it in its original meaning. Kantโ€”guiding spirit of European Enlightenmentโ€”was the one who articulated the sharp distinction between autonomous morality, according to which โ€œa human being is subject to no laws but those he imposes on himself,โ€ that is, to duties legislated by his universal reason, and heteronomous morality, in which a person acts in accordance with โ€œany other principle.โ€ Teachers of philosophy generally give the divine command or the decree of the state as examples of such an โ€œother principle.โ€ Here, however, I wish to sharpen the distinction: these demands for action ought to be viewed as โ€œhard autonomyโ€ and โ€œhard heteronomyโ€ (respectively), since each of them, within its own framework, expresses a demand to act out of a consciousness of duty and obedience to it, and both insist that value (moral or religious) is determined by that consciousness of obedience. It is thus clear why these two conceptions clash head-on: each demands โ€œreverence for the lawโ€ (in Kantโ€™s phrase), yet the law in each case differs and even contradicts its counterpart, and therefore they compete, as it were, for the source of authority that imposes the duty.

And what of a person who performs a good deed not out of obedience to any duty but rather by virtue of natural inclination, personality, or simple human emotion? For example, what of one who gives charity merely because he pities the poor person and the good deed improves his own feeling? At first glance, such a stance does not propose a competing source of authority, and both conceptions could live at peace with it: โ€œsoft autonomyโ€ and โ€œsoft heteronomyโ€ might accept such an act as having moral or religious value (respectively). Yet, as we shall see below, Kant, from within his conception of autonomy, denies moral value to such an act, and in Hasidic thought changes took place regarding the religious value to be assigned to such behavior.
Contemporary Israeli Haredi Society, 2023
'The Fundamental Components of Haredi Ideology (Hashkafah)' - link to ToC of the collection: Kimm... more 'The Fundamental Components of Haredi Ideology (Hashkafah)' - link to ToC of the collection: Kimmy Caplan and Nissim Leon (eds.), Contemporary Israeli Haredi Society, London: Routledge (English, 2023)
Da'at - Journal of Jewish Philosophy and Kabbalah, 90 (2021) 90 ื“ืขืช - ื›ืชื‘ ืขืช ืœืคื™ืœื•ืกื•ืคื™ื” ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช ื•ืœืงื‘ืœื”, 2021
'The Musar Movement and the Sex Drive: A New Perspective Based on Two Letters by R. Israel Salant... more 'The Musar Movement and the Sex Drive: A New Perspective Based on Two Letters by R. Israel Salanter' (Hebrew, 2021)

ืœืžืจื‘ื” ื”ืฆืขืจ, ื‘ืฉืœ ื˜ืขื•ืช ืฉืœ ื›ืชื‘ ื”ืขืช 'ื“ืขืช' ื ืฉืžื˜ื” ื”ืขืจืช ื”ืฉื•ืœื™ื™ื ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ื‘ืžืืžืจ ื•ื‘ื” ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ืฉืืจ ื“ื‘ืจื™ ืชื•ื“ื” ืœืžื™ ืฉืกื™ื™ืขื• ืœื•, ื•ืขืงื‘ ื”ืฉืžื˜ื” ื–ื• ื’ื ืฉื•ื‘ืฉื• ื”ื”ืคื ื™ื•ืช ื”ื—ื•ื–ืจื•ืช ื‘ืชื•ืš ื”ืžืืžืจ.

ืœื”ืœืŸ ืชืงืฆื™ืจ ื”ืžืืžืจ ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื•ื‘ืขื‘ืจื™ืช:

Abstract
This article focuses on two unstudied letters written by the founder of the Lithuanian Musar movement, R. Israel Salanter (1810โ€“1883), both of which pertain to matters of sexual propriety. The first, penned in 1869, concerns someone who wants to afflict himself as penance for a nocturnal emission; the second, dating to 1874, is a halakhic responsum about mixed dancing.
The leaders of the Musar movement, in their impassioned talks and writings, frequently spoke of the struggle against the โ€œevil inclinationโ€ in all its forms, yet they rarely discussed what is commonly considered the most powerful head of that hydra: the sexual urge. While these figures never explained their silence, the two letters help us understand it. The first reveals that Salanter considered directing any attention towards the libidoโ€”even as part of an attempt to curb or subdue itโ€”as hazardous, because it would only serve to arouse it further. Any nagging โ€œthoughtโ€ or โ€œtormentโ€ ought to be left alone rather than recognized. The second letter does not stray from the bounds of Halakhah one wit, including no aggadic anecdotes or Musar exhortations. Its style of halakhic writing is antiseptically formal and technical, concentrating on the Talmud and later authorities to the exclusion of all else. Salanterโ€™s restraint here, in forgoing all relevant Musar and aggadah, speaks volumes. The conclusion to be drawn, apparently, is that Salanter thought it most prudent to handle the inflaming sexual passion with the gloves of Halakhah rather than with โ€œMusar work,โ€ consisting of introspection, inculcation of Musar teachings, and self-correction.
Presumably, Salanterโ€™s disciples and grand-disciples were unfamiliar with the first letter, as it was only printed in 1959, and even the second letter, published in 1901, was largely forgotten. Nevertheless, they would have observed personally which issues Salanter addressed head-on, circuitously, or not at all, which failings demanded โ€œMusar workโ€ and which stones were better left unturned. Such personal conduct often spoke louder than any wordsโ€”spoken or written. It seems, then, that without formulating any clear policy about addressing the sex drive, the Musar movement developed a sort of tradition about areas deemed untouchable. A handful of deviations aside, it seems that this tradition was preserved for a number of generations, such that only after World War II, when the Musar movement entered on a new phase, could the sex drive be occasionally, gingerly touched upon in Musar talks.

ืชื ื•ืขืช ื”ืžื•ืกืจ ื•ื”ื™ืฆืจ ื”ืžื™ื ื™:
ืžื‘ื˜ ื—ื“ืฉ ืขืœ ืคื™ ืฉื ื™ ืžื›ืชื‘ื™ื ืฉืœ ืจ' ื™ืฉืจืืœ ืกืœื ื˜ืจ
ื‘ื ื™ืžื™ืŸ ื‘ืจืื•ืŸ

ืชืงืฆื™ืจ
ื‘ืžืจื›ื–ื• ืฉืœ ืžืืžืจ ื–ื” ืขื•ืžื“ื™ื ืฉื ื™ ืžื›ืชื‘ื™ื ืฉืœ ืžื™ื™ืกื“ ืชื ื•ืขืช ื”ืžื•ืกืจ ื”ืœื™ื˜ืื™ืช, ืจ' ื™ืฉืจืืœ ืกืœื ื˜ืจ (1883-1810), ื”ืขื•ืกืงื™ื ื‘ืขื ื™ื™ื ื™ื ื”ืงืฉื•ืจื™ื ืœืชื—ื•ื ื”ืžื™ื ื™: ื”ืื—ื“, ืžืฉื ืช ืชืจื›"ื˜ (1869), ืขื•ืกืง ื‘ืžื™ ืฉืžื‘ืงืฉ ืœื”ืกืชื’ืฃ ื›ื“ื™ ืœืชืงืŸ ืืช ืขื•ื•ืŸ ืงืจื™ ื”ืœื™ืœื”, ื•ื”ืฉื ื™, ืžืฉื ืช ืชืจืœ"ื“ (1874), ืขื•ืกืง ื‘ืื™ืกื•ืจ ืขืœ ืจื™ืงื•ื“ื™ื ืžืขื•ืจื‘ื™ื. ืžื›ืชื‘ ื–ื” ื”ืื—ืจื•ืŸ, ืฉืจืื” ืื•ืจ ื‘ื‘ืจืœื™ืŸ ื‘ืฉื ืช ืชืจืก"ื, ื™ื“ื•ืข ื‘ืžื—ืงืจ ืืš ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืœื ื–ื›ื” ืœื ื™ืชื•ื— ืฉื™ื˜ืชื™. ืœืขื•ืžืชื•, ื”ืžื›ืชื‘ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ, ืฉืจืื” ืื•ืจ ืœืจืืฉื•ื ื” ื‘ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ื‘ืฉื ืช ืชืฉื™"ื˜, ืœื ื ื–ื›ืจ ื›ืœืœ ื‘ืกืคืจื•ืช ื”ืžื—ืงืจ ื•ืœืžืขืฉื” ื ื•ืชืจ ืขืœื•ื.
ื”ื•ื’ื™ื” ื•ืžื ื”ื™ื’ื™ื” ืฉืœ  ืชื ื•ืขืช ื”ืžื•ืกืจ ืขืกืงื• ืจื‘ื•ืช ื‘ืฉื™ื—ื•ืชื™ื”ื ื•ื‘ื›ืชื‘ื™ื”ื ื‘ืžืื‘ืง ื ื’ื“ 'ื”ื™ืฆืจ' ืœืกื•ื’ื™ื•, ืืš ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืžืชืžื™ื” ืœื ืขืกืงื• ื‘ืฉื™ื—ื•ืชื™ื”ื ื•ื‘ื›ืชื‘ื™ื”ื ื›ืžืขื˜ ื›ืœืœ ื‘ืžื” ืฉื ื—ืฉื‘ ืชื“ื™ืจ 'ื”ื™ืฆืจ' ื‘ื”"ื ื”ื™ื“ื™ืขื”, ื”ื™ืฆืจ ื”ืžื™ื ื™. ื”ื•ื’ื™ ื”ืžื•ืกืจ ืขืฆืžื ืื™ื ื ืžืกื‘ื™ืจื™ื ืืช ืฉืชื™ืงืชื, ืืš ืฉื ื™ ื”ืžื›ืชื‘ื™ื ื”ื ื–ื›ืจื™ื ืฉื•ืคื›ื™ื ืื•ืจ ืขืœ ื”ืžื ื™ืข: ื”ืžื›ืชื‘ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ืžืœืžื“ ื›ื™ ืจ' ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื‘ื™ืงืฉ ืจืื” ืืช ืขืฆื ื”ื”ืชืขืกืงื•ืช ื‘ื™ืฆืจ ื”ืžื™ื ื™, ืืคื™ืœื• ื‘ืžื˜ืจื” ืœืจืกื ื• ืื• ืœื“ื›ืื•, ื›ืžื”ืœืš ื‘ืขื™ื™ืชื™, ืžืฉื•ื ืฉื”ื•ื ืขืœื•ืœ ืœืขื•ืจืจ ืื•ืชื• ืขื•ื“ ื™ื•ืชืจ. ื”ืžื›ืชื‘ ื”ืฉื ื™ ื›ืชื•ื‘ ื›ืชืฉื•ื‘ื” ื”ืœื›ืชื™ืช ืคื•ืจืžืœื™ืช, ื•ืืฃ ื“ื‘ืจื™ ืื’ื“ื” ืื• ืžื•ืกืจ ืื™ื ื ืžืชืœื•ื•ื™ื ืœื•. ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœื”ืกื™ืง ืžืžื ื• ื›ื™ ืจ' ื™ืฉืจืืœ ืกื‘ืจ ืฉื”ื“ืจืš ื”ืขื™ืงืจื™ืช ืœื”ืชืžื•ื“ื“ ืขื ืฉืืœื•ืช ื”ื ื•ื’ืขื•ืช ืœื™ืฆืจ ื”ืžื™ื ื™ ื”ื•ื ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ืขืžื™ื“ื” ืขืœ ืฉื•ืจืช ื”ื”ืœื›ื” ื•ืœื ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช 'ื”ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ื”ืžื•ืกืจื™ืช'. ื–ื• ื”ืื—ืจื•ื ื” ื›ื•ืœืœืช ื‘ื—ื™ื ื” ืขืฆืžื™ืช ืœืื™ืชื•ืจ ื”ืžื™ื“ื” ื”ืคืกื•ืœื”, ืฉื™ื ื•ืŸ ืžืืžืจื™ ืžื•ืกืจ ืขืœ ื”ืžื™ื“ื” ื”ืคืกื•ืœื” ื•ืื™ืžื•ืŸ ืขืฆืžื™ ืขื“ ื›ื“ื™ ืžืฆื‘ ืฉื‘ื• ื”ืžื™ื“ื” ื”ืคืกื•ืœื” ืœื ืชืชืขื•ืจืจ ื›ืœืœ. ื”ืžื›ืชื‘ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ืื•ืžืจ ื‘ืžืคื•ืจืฉ ื›ื™ ื‘ื›ืœ ื”ืชื—ื•ืžื™ื ืฉื‘ื”ื ื”ืื“ื ืžื•ื˜ืจื“ ืž'ืจืขื™ื•ืŸ' ืื• 'ืฆืขืจ' โ€“ ืžื•ื˜ื‘ ืœื• ืœื”ื ื™ื— ืื•ืชื• ื•ืœืขืกื•ืง ื‘ื• ื›ืžื” ืฉืคื—ื•ืช; ื•ืื™ืœื• ื‘ืžื›ืชื‘ ื”ืฉื ื™ ื”ื•ื ื ื•ืงื˜ ื‘ื“ืจืš ืฉืœ ืฉืชื™ืงื” ืจื•ืขืžืช, ื›ืืฉืจ ื”ื•ื ื ืžื ืข ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื‘ื•ืœื˜ ืžื›ืœ ืฉื™ืœื•ื‘ ืฉืœ ื“ื‘ืจื™ ืžื•ืกืจ, ืื’ื“ื” ืื• ืชื•ื›ื—ื” ืืœ ืชื•ืš ื”ื“ื™ื•ืŸ ื”ื”ืœื›ืชื™. ืจ' ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื ื•ืงื˜ ื‘ื• ืกื’ื ื•ืŸ ื”ืœื›ืชื™ ื˜ื›ื ื™, ืœื—ืœื•ื˜ื™ืŸ, ื›ืžืขื˜ ื™ื‘ืฉ, ื•ืžืชืžืงื“ ืืš ื•ืจืง ื‘ืฉ"ืก ื•ื‘ืคื•ืกืงื™ื.
ืกื‘ื™ืจ ืœื”ื ื™ื— ืฉืชืœืžื™ื“ื™ื• ื•ืชืœืžื™ื“ื™ ืชืœืžื™ื“ื™ื• ืฉืœ ืจ' ื™ืฉืจืืœ ืœื ื”ื›ื™ืจื• ืืช ื”ืื™ื’ืจืช ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื”, ืฉื ื“ืคืกื” ืœืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืจืง ื‘ืฉื ืช ืชืฉื™"ื˜, ื•ื’ื ื”ืื™ื’ืจืช ื”ืฉื ื™ื™ื”, ืฉื”ืชืคืจืกืžื” ื‘ืชืจืก"ื, ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืฉื›ื•ื—ื” ื‘ืžื™ื“ื” ืจื‘ื”. ื•ืื•ืœื, ื”ื ื™ื“ืขื• ื”ื™ื˜ื‘ ืขืœ ืžื” ืจื‘ื ื ื”ื’ ืœื“ื‘ืจ ื•ืขืœ ืžื” ืœื, ื‘ืื™ืœื• ืชื—ื•ืžื™ื ื“ืจืฉ ืžื”ื ืืช 'ื”ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ื”ืžื•ืกืจื™ืช' ื•ื‘ืื™ืœื• ืชื—ื•ืžื™ื ื”ืขื“ื™ืฃ ืœื”ื ื™ื—ื” ื‘ืฆื“. 'ืžืขืฉื” ืจื‘' ืฉื›ื–ื” ืœืขืชื™ื ื—ื–ืง ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื˜ืงืกื˜ ื›ืชื•ื‘ ืื• ืžื”ื•ืจืื” ืžืคื•ืจืฉืช. ื ืจืื” ืืคื•ื ื›ื™ ื‘ืœื ืœืงื‘ื•ืข ืขืงืจื•ื ื•ืช ืžื“ื™ื ื™ื•ืช ืžื•ืฆื”ืจื™ื ื‘ื ื•ืฉื ื–ื”, ื”ืœื›ื” ื•ื”ืชืคืชื—ื” ื‘ืชื ื•ืขืช ื”ืžื•ืกืจ ื›ืขื™ืŸ ืžืกื•ืจืช, ืœืคื™ื” ื‘ื ื•ืฉื ื”ื–ื” ืื™ืŸ ืขื•ืกืงื™ื. ืœืžืขื˜ ื—ืจื™ื’ื™ื, ื“ื•ืžื” ื›ื™ ืžืกื•ืจืช ื–ื• ื ืฉืžืจื” ืœืื•ืจืš ื›ืžื” ื“ื•ืจื•ืช, ื•ืจืง ืœืื—ืจ ืžืœื—ืžืช ื”ืขื•ืœื ื”ืฉื ื™ื™ื”, ื›ืืฉืจ ืชื ื•ืขืช ื”ืžื•ืกืจ ื”ื—ืœื” ืชืงื•ืคื” ื—ื“ืฉื” ื‘ืชื•ืœื“ื•ืชื™ื”, ื”ืคืš ื”ื™ืฆืจ ื”ืžื™ื ื™ ืœื ื•ืฉื ื”ืขื•ืœื” ืœืขืชื™ื ื‘ืขื“ื™ื ื•ืช ื‘ืฉื™ื—ื•ืช ื”ืžื•ืกืจ.
Dine Israel 35, 2022
ืชืฉื•ื‘ื•ืช ื‘ื–ืง: ืœืงืจืืช ืจื™ืืœื™ื–ื ื”ืœื›ืชื™ ื‘ื ื™ืžื™ืŸ ื‘ืจืื•ืŸ ื”ืžืืžืจ ืžื‘ืงืฉ ืœื‘ื—ื•ืŸ ืืช ืกืคืจื•ืช ื”ืชืฉื•ื‘ื•ืช ื”ืงืฆืจื•ืช ื•ื”ื‘ืœืช... more ืชืฉื•ื‘ื•ืช ื‘ื–ืง: ืœืงืจืืช ืจื™ืืœื™ื–ื ื”ืœื›ืชื™
ื‘ื ื™ืžื™ืŸ ื‘ืจืื•ืŸ


ื”ืžืืžืจ ืžื‘ืงืฉ ืœื‘ื—ื•ืŸ ืืช ืกืคืจื•ืช ื”ืชืฉื•ื‘ื•ืช ื”ืงืฆืจื•ืช ื•ื”ื‘ืœืชื™ ืžื ื•ืžืงื•ืช (ืื• ืžื ื•ืžืงื•ืช ื‘ื”ื ืžืงื” ืžื–ืขืจื™ืช, ืœืจื•ื‘ ื‘ืœืชื™-ืคื•ืจืžืœื™ืช) ืฉื”ืชืคืชื—ื” ื‘ื”ืœื›ื” ื‘ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืื—ืจื•ืŸ. ื”ืชื•ืคืขื” ื”ื ื–ื›ืจืช ืžืฉืชืจืขืช ืžืชืฉื•ื‘ื•ืชื™ื• ื”ืœืงื•ื ื™ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืจ' ื—ื™ื™ื ืงื ื™ื™ื‘ืกืงื™ ('ืฉื•"ืช ื’ืœื•ื™ื”') ื•ืขื“ ืœืฉื•"ืช ืก.ืž.ืก ืฉืœ ื”ืจื‘ื ื™ื ืฉืœืžื” ืื‘ื™ื ืจ ื•ืฉืžื•ืืœ ืืœื™ื”ื•. ืืœื” ื•ืืœื” ื”ื ื—ืœืง ืžืชื•ืคืขื” ื”ืจืื•ื™ื” ืœื›ื™ื ื•ื™ 'ืชืฉื•ื‘ื•ืช ื‘ื–ืง'. ื”ืžืืžืจ ืžื ืชื— ืืช ื˜ื™ื‘ื” ืฉืœ ื”ืชื•ืคืขื” ื”ื–ื•, ืืช ื”ืชืžื•ืจื•ืช ืฉื”ื™ื ื—ื•ืœืœื” ื‘ืขื•ืœื ื”ื”ืœื›ื” ื•ืืช ืžืฉืžืขื•ืชืŸ ืžื‘ื—ื™ื ืช ื”ื‘ื ืช ืื•ืคื™ื• ืฉืœ ืชื”ืœื™ืš ื”ืคืกื™ืงื” ื”ื”ืœื›ืชื™ืช ื•ื’ื‘ื•ืœื•ืช ื”ื”ืœื›ื” ืขืฆืžื”. ื‘ื ื™ืชื•ื— ื–ื” ืžื‘ืงืฉ ื”ืžืืžืจ ืœื‘ื—ื•ืŸ ืขื“ ื›ืžื” ืืคืฉืจ ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ืืช ื”ื”ืœื›ื” ืœืื•ืจ ื”ื“ื’ื ื”ืชื™ืื•ืจื˜ื™ ืฉืœ ื”ืจื™ืืœื™ื–ื ื”ืžืฉืคื˜ื™, ื•ืœืฉื ื›ืš ื ืคืจืฉ ื“ื’ื ื–ื” ื‘ื ืงื•ื“ื•ืช ื”ื ื•ื’ืขื•ืช ืœืขื ื™ื™ื ื ื•: ื’ื‘ื•ืœื•ืช ื”ืžืฉืคื˜ ื•ืื•ืคื™ื• ืฉืœ ืชื”ืœื™ืš ื”ืฉืคื™ื˜ื”. ื”ืจื™ืืœื™ื–ื, ืฉื‘ื“ืจืš ื›ืœืœ ื ื—ืฉื‘ ืœื—ื™ื“ื•ืฉ ืฉืœ ืžืฉืคื˜ื ื™ื ืืžืจื™ืงื ื™ื™ื ืืš ืœืืžื™ืชื• ืฉืœ ื“ื‘ืจ ืงื“ื ืœื”ื ื›ืžืขื˜ ื‘ืฉื ื•ืช ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืกื•ืฆื™ื•ืœื•ื’ ื•ื”ืชื™ืื•ืจื˜ื™ืงืŸ ื”ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ ื”ืื™ื˜ืœืงื™ ื•ื™ืœืคืจื“ื• ืคืจื˜ื• (1923-1848), ืžืฆื™ื’ ืืช ื”ื”ื ืžืงื” ื”ืžืฉืคื˜ื™ืช ื”ืคื•ืจืžืœื™ืช ื•ื”ืžืคื•ืจื˜ืช ื›ื›ื™ืกื•ื™ ืžืœืื›ื•ืชื™ ืฉืœ ืฉื™ืงื•ืœื™ ื”ืคืกื™ืงื” ื”ืืžื™ืชื™ื™ื. ืœื›ืื•ืจื”, ืชืฉื•ื‘ื•ืช ื”ื‘ื–ืง ืžืœืžื“ื•ืช ื›ื™ ื’ื ื”ื”ืœื›ื” ืคื•ืขืœืช ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื“ื•ืžื”. ื•ืื•ืœื, ื”ืžืืžืจ ืžืกื™ืง ื›ื™ ื”ื˜ืœืชื• ืฉืœ ื“ื’ื ื–ื” (ื›ืคื™ ืฉื”ืชืคืชื— ื‘ื™ื—ืก ืœืฉื™ื˜ื•ืช ืžืฉืคื˜ ืžื•ื“ืจื ื™ื•ืช) ืขืœ ื”ื”ืœื›ื” ื™ื—ื˜ื™ื ื”ื™ื‘ื˜ื™ื ื™ื™ื—ื•ื“ื™ื™ื ืœืžืขืจื›ืช ื–ื•, ื•ื‘ืขืงื‘ื•ืช ื–ืืช ืžืฆื™ืข ื“ื’ื ืžืชื•ืงืŸ ืฉืœ 'ืจื™ืืœื™ื–ื ื”ืœื›ืชื™', ืฉื™ื”ื™ื” ื”ื•ืœื ื™ื•ืชืจ ื›ื›ืœื™ ืคืจืฉื ื™ ื•ืื ืœื™ื˜ื™, ื•ื™ืกื™ื™ืข ืœืชืืจ ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื˜ื•ื‘ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืืช ื’ื‘ื•ืœื•ืช ื”ื”ืœื›ื” ื•ืื•ืคื™ื• ืฉืœ ืชื”ืœื™ืš ื”ืคืกื™ืงื”.


Instant Responsa: Towards Halakhic Realism
Benjamin Brown

This article seeks to evaluate the recently developed phenomenon of halakhic responsa that are extremely terse and lack argumentation, or contain minimal, usually informal argumentation. These responsa range from Rabbi แธคayim Kanievskyโ€™s laconic responsa (a.k.a. โ€œpostcard responsaโ€) to the โ€œS.M.S. responsaโ€ by Rabbis Shlomo Aviner and Shmuel Eliyahu. Both are parts of a phenomenon that can appropriately be termed โ€œinstant responsa.โ€ This article analyzes the nature of this phenomenon, the changes that it has brought about in halakhic discourse, and the meaning of these changes for understanding the process of halakhic decision-making and the boundaries of the Halakhah. As part of this analysis, the article also investigates the degree to which the theoretical model of Legal Realism, which depicted detailed formal legal reasoning as an artificial covering over the real considerations that enter into judicial decisions,  can be applied to the Halakhah. In doing so, it offers an interpretation of the relevant aspects of this model: the boundaries of the law and the nature of the judicial process.
Legal Realism is usually considered to be an innovation of American legal scholars such as Karl Llewellyn (1893-1962) and Jerome Frank (1889-1957) but was actually formulated about two decades earlier by the Italian social scientist Vilfredo Pareto (1848โ€“1923). In the context of the Halakhah, Hanina Ben Menahem (born 1944) has insisted, more than any other scholar, that Talmudic law is โ€œgoverned by men, not by rules,โ€ a phrase that is strikingly similar to one of Llewellyn's. Ben Menahem nevertheless rejects attempts to characterize him as a legal realist about the Halakhah. Ostensibly, โ€œinstant responsaโ€ strengthen the impression that halakhic decisions are made in the same intuitive and informal way as those rulings, while the formal argumentation of the traditional rulings is only added as cover. One might think that this phenomenon supports the contention that the legal realistsโ€™ understanding of law can be applied to the Halakhah, or at least to modern Halakhah, without much qualification. This article concludes, however, that doing so would be misguided and that the indiscriminate application of legal realist theory (that was developed as a model to analyze modern legal systems) to the Halakhah leads to our missing certain unique elements of Jewish religious law. The article therefore offers a refined model of โ€œhalakhic realism,โ€ by the means of which we can offer a better interpretive analysis of the boundaries of Halakhah and the process of halakhic decision-making.
ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื‘ื”ื’ื•ืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช ื‘ืžืื” ื”ืขืฉืจื™ื, 2004
'ืงื“ื•ืฉืช ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื‘ืจืื™ ืคื•ืœืžื•ืก ื”ืฉืžื™ื˜ื”'
Journal of Jewish Studies , 2013
The article suggest a simple model, based on the distinction between principles and supra-princip... more The article suggest a simple model, based on the distinction between principles and supra-principles, as a tool for tracking the continuity that may exist between teacher and follower in spite of the apparent difference between them.
The model is exemplified through a particular case study: Isaac Breuer was the grandson of Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch, and presented himself as his disciple. However, a critical examination of the opinions of the two regarding the crucial question of Jewish nationalism reveals that their principles were quite different: Hirsch was against Jewish nationalism, Breuer fought for it. Notwithstanding, in the level of supra-principles they the continuity is preserved: Advocating the supra-principle of "Torah In Derekh Eretz, both viewed "Torah" (i.e. the Halakhah) as eternal and immutable and "Derekh Eretz" as the demand to give changing responses to the changing challenges of each time. The change in the principles towards Jewish nationalism entailed, therefore, from the change in the challenges.
This model is found similarly applicable to the opposite change that took place in Hungarian Ultra-Orthodoxy, from warm support of Aliyah to Eretz Yisrael to fierce opposition to it. The supra-principle of building fences against the "New" (i.e. the modern and the moderns) stood behind both of them.
Zion / ืฆื™ื•ืŸ, 2021
ืชืงืฆื™ืจ ืฉืชื™ ืืกื›ื•ืœื•ืช ื‘ื—ืงืจ ื”ื—ืกื™ื“ื•ืช, ืฉืืคืฉืจ ืœื›ื ื•ืชืŸ 'ื”ืžื—ืงืจ ื”ื™ืฉืŸ' ื•'ื”ืžื—ืงืจ ื”ื—ื“ืฉ', ื—ืœื•ืงื•ืช ืœื’ื‘ื™ ื”ืชืงื•ืคื” ืฉื‘ื™ืŸ... more ืชืงืฆื™ืจ
ืฉืชื™ ืืกื›ื•ืœื•ืช ื‘ื—ืงืจ ื”ื—ืกื™ื“ื•ืช, ืฉืืคืฉืจ ืœื›ื ื•ืชืŸ 'ื”ืžื—ืงืจ ื”ื™ืฉืŸ' ื•'ื”ืžื—ืงืจ ื”ื—ื“ืฉ', ื—ืœื•ืงื•ืช ืœื’ื‘ื™ ื”ืชืงื•ืคื” ืฉื‘ื™ืŸ ืคื˜ื™ืจืช ื”ื‘ืขืฉ"ื˜ ืœื‘ื™ืŸ ืคื˜ื™ืจืช ื”ืžื’ื™ื“ ืžืžื–ืจื™ื˜ืฉ (1772-1760). ื”ืžื—ืงืจ ื”ื™ืฉืŸ ื˜ื•ืขืŸ ื›ื™ ืžื™ื™ื“ ืœืื—ืจ ืคื˜ื™ืจืช ื”ื‘ืขืฉ"ื˜ ืงื™ื‘ืœ ื”ืžื’ื™ื“ ืœื™ื“ื™ื• ืืช ื”ื ื”ื’ืช ื”ืชื ื•ืขื” ืฉื™ืกื“ ืจื‘ื• ื•ื”ื•ื‘ื™ืœ ืื•ืชื” ืœื”ื™ืฉื’ื™ื” ื›ืชื ื•ืขืช ื”ืžื•ื ื™ื. ื”ืžื—ืงืจ ื”ื—ื“ืฉ ื˜ื•ืขืŸ ื›ื™ ื”ื‘ืขืฉ"ื˜ ืœื ื™ืกื“ ืฉื•ื ืชื ื•ืขื” ื•ืžืžื™ืœื ืœื ืขืžื“ ื‘ืจืืฉื”, ื•ืœื›ืŸ ืขื ืคื˜ื™ืจืชื• ืœื ื™ืจืฉ ืื•ืชื• ืื™ืฉ (ืฉื”ืจื™ ืœื ื”ื™ื” ืžื” ืœืจืฉืช), ืืœื ื›ืžื” ืžืืœื” ืฉื ื—ืฉื‘ื• ืœืชืœืžื™ื“ื™ื• ืฉื™ืžืฉื• ื›ืฆื“ื™ืงื™ื, ื•ื”ืžื’ื™ื“ ื”ื™ื” ืจืง ืื—ื“ ืžื”ื, ื•ืขื“ ื™ื•ื ืžื•ืชื• ืœื ืขืžื“ ื‘ืจืืฉ ื”ืชื ื•ืขื” ื‘ื›ืœืœื”.
ื”ืžืืžืจ ืžื‘ืงืฉ ืœื”ืฆื™ื’ ืชืกืจื™ื˜ ืฉืœื™ืฉื™: ืขื ืคื˜ื™ืจืช ื”ื‘ืขืฉ"ื˜ ืื›ืŸ ืœื ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืชื ื•ืขื” ื—ืกื™ื“ื™ืช, ืืš ื”ื™ื” ื—ื•ื’ ืฉืœ ืื™ืฉื™ื ืฉืจืื• ืืช ื”ื‘ืขืฉ"ื˜ ื›ืžื•ืจื” ื“ืจื›ื, ื•ื—ืœืงื ืคืขืœื• ื‘ืฆื™ื‘ื•ืจ ื•ืจื›ืฉื• ืชืœืžื™ื“ื™ื ืื• ืžืขืจื™ืฆื™ื. ื—ื•ื’ ื–ื” ื”ื™ื” ื‘ืขืœ ื“ื’ืฉื™ื ืจืขื™ื•ื ื™ื™ื ืžืฉืœื• ื•ืชื•ื“ืขืช ื–ื”ื•ืช, ื’ื ืื ื ื˜ื•ืœ ืืจื’ื•ืŸ ืžื•ืกื“ื™. ื”ืžื’ื™ื“ ืœื ื™ืจืฉ ืืช ื”ื ื”ื’ืชื• ืฉืœ ื—ื•ื’ ื–ื”, ื•ื”ื™ื” ืจืง ืื—ื“ ื”ืื™ืฉื™ื ื”ื‘ื•ืœื˜ื™ื ื‘ื•. ื•ืื•ืœื, ืœืื—ืจ ืฉื’ื™ืœื” ื”ืžื’ื™ื“ ืžืžื–ืจื™ื˜ืฉ ืžืขื•ืจื‘ื•ืช ืกืžื›ื•ืชื™ืช ื‘ื›ืžื” ืขื™ืžื•ืชื™ื, ื›ื ืจืื” ื‘ืžื™ื•ื—ื“ ืกื‘ื™ื‘ ื”ืฉื ื™ื ืชืงื›"ื•-ืชืงื›"ื– (1767-1766), ื”ื•ื ื”ืœืš ื•ื”ืกืชืžืŸ ื‘ื”ื“ืจื’ื” ื›ืžื™ ืฉืขื•ืžื“ ื‘ืจืืฉ ืฉื›ื‘ืช ื”ืขื™ืœื™ืช ืฉืœ ื—ื•ื’ ื”ื‘ืขืฉ"ื˜ ื•ืžืขืจื™ืฆื™ื•. ืขื“ ืœืคื˜ื™ืจืชื• ื‘ืฉื ืช ืชืงืœ"ื‘ (1772) ื›ื‘ืจ ืืคืฉืจ ื”ื™ื” ืœื•ืžืจ ื‘ื‘ื™ืจื•ืจ ื›ื™ ื”ื•ื ื”ืžื ื”ื™ื’ ื”ื”ื’ืžื•ื ื™ ืฉืœ ืชื ื•ืขื” ื—ืกื™ื“ื™ืช. ื”ืชื’ื‘ืฉื•ืชื” ืฉืœ ืฉื›ื‘ืช ื”ืขื™ืœื™ืช, ื•ื‘ืžื™ื•ื—ื“ ื”ืขืžื“ืชื• ืฉืœ ืื“ื ืื—ื“ ื‘ืจืืฉ ื”ืคื™ืจืžื™ื“ื”, ื”ื™ื ืื—ื“ ื”ื’ื•ืจืžื™ื ื”ืขื™ืงืจื™ื™ื ื”ืžืฆื“ื™ืงื™ื ืืช ืจืื™ื™ืชื” ืฉืœ ื”ื—ืกื™ื“ื•ืช ื›ืชื ื•ืขื” ืžื’ื•ื‘ืฉืช ื›ื‘ืจ ื‘ืฉืœื‘ ื–ื”.
ื”ืžืืžืจ ืžื‘ืงืฉ ืœื”ื•ื›ื™ื— ืขืžื“ื” ื–ื• ื‘ืžืชื•ื“ื” ื”ืžืชื—ื™ืœื” ืืช ื”ื“ื™ื•ืŸ ืžืชื•ืš ื—ื•ืžืจื™ื ืจืืฉื•ื ื™ื™ื, ื•ืžื”ื ื™ื•ืฆืืช ืืœ ืขื“ื•ื™ื•ืช ื•ืกื™ืคื•ืจื™ื. ื”ื—ื•ืžืจื™ื ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื™ื™ื (ืื• 'ื”ื ืชื•ื ื™ื ื”ืงืฉื™ื—ื™ื') ื”ื ื‘ืจืืฉ ื•ื‘ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืฉืฉื” ืžืกืžื›ื™ื โ€“ ื—ืžืฉื” ืžื›ืชื‘ื™ื ื•ื”ืกื›ืžื” ืื—ืช - ืฉืขืœื™ื”ื ื—ืชื•ื ื”ืžื’ื™ื“ ืžืžื–ืจื™ื˜ืฉ ืขืฆืžื•, ื•ืขื•ื“ ืžืกืžื›ื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื, ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื ื‘ื™ื“ื™ ืื™ืฉื™ื ืžืกื‘ื™ื‘ืชื•, ื”ืขืฉื•ื™ื™ื ืœืฉืคื•ืš ืื•ืจ ื—ื“ืฉ ืขืœ ืคืขื™ืœื•ืชื• ื•ืขืœ ืžืขืžื“ื• ื‘ืชืงื•ืคื” ื”ื ื“ื•ื ื” ื•ืœืกื™ื™ืข ืœื‘ื ื•ืช ืœืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืชื™ืื•ืจ ืฉื™ื˜ืชื™, ืฉืœื‘ ืื—ืจ ืฉืœื‘, ืฉืœ 12 ื”ืฉื ื™ื ื”ืงืจื™ื˜ื™ื•ืช ืฉืœืื—ืจ ืคื˜ื™ืจืช ื”ื‘ืขืฉ"ื˜.
ืžื ื™ืชื•ื— ื”ืžืงื•ืจื•ืช ื”ืœืœื• ืขื•ืœื” ื›ื™ ื”ื”ืชืคืชื—ื•ืช ื”ื ื“ื•ื ื” ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืฉื™ืœื•ื‘ ืฉืœ ืชื”ืœื™ื›ื™ื ืžืœืžื˜ื” ื•ืžืœืžืขืœื”: ืžืœืžื˜ื” - ื”ืชื’ื‘ืฉื•ืช ืฉื›ื‘ืช ืชืœืžื™ื“ื™ื ื’ื“ื•ืœื” ืกื‘ื™ื‘ ื”ืžื’ื™ื“, ื™ืฆื™ืืชื ืฉืœ ืชืœืžื™ื“ื™ื ืืœื” ืœืžืจื—ื‘ ืœืฉื ื”ืคืฆืช ื‘ืฉื•ืจืช ื”ื—ืกื™ื“ื•ืช ืชื—ืช ื—ืกื•ืช ืจื‘ื ื•ื‘ืขื™ื“ื•ื“ื•, ืงื‘ืœืช ืกืžื›ื•ืช ื”ืžื’ื™ื“ ื‘ื™ื“ื™ ืชืœืžื™ื“ื™ ื”ื‘ืขืฉ"ื˜ ื”ืื—ืจื™ื, ื•ื”ื›ืจืชื ืฉืœ ืชืœืžื™ื“ื™ ื”ืžื’ื™ื“ ื‘ื›ืš ืฉืกืžื›ื•ืช ืจื‘ื ืžื—ื™ื™ื‘ืช ืื•ืชื ื’ื ืœืื—ืจ ืฉื”ื ืขืฆืžื ื›ื‘ืจ ื”ืงื™ืžื• ื‘ืกื™ืกื™ ื›ื— ืžืฉืœื”ื. ืžืœืžืขืœื” โ€“ ื›ืœ ืื•ืชื ืžื”ืœื›ื™ื ืฉื”ื•ื‘ื™ืœ ื”ืžื’ื™ื“ ืขืฆืžื• ื‘ื ื—ื™ืฉื•ืช, ื‘ืืกืจื˜ื™ื‘ื™ื•ืช, ื•ืœืขืชื™ื ืืฃ ื‘ืžื™ื“ื” ืฉืœ ื›ื•ื—ื ื•ืช: ืฉืœื™ื—ืช ืชืœืžื™ื“ื™ื• ืœื”ืคืฆืช ื”ื—ืกื™ื“ื•ืช, ืœืขืชื™ื ืชื•ืš ืžื•ื“ืขื•ืช ืœืžื—ืœื•ืงื•ืช ืฉื”ื ืขืœื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ื™ื’ืจืจ ืืœื™ื”ืŸ, ื ื˜ื™ืœืช ื”ื”ื›ืจืขื” ื‘ืกื›ืกื•ื›ื™ื ืžืงื•ืžื™ื™ื ืžืขืœ ืœืจืืฉื™ื”ื ืฉืœ ืจื‘ื ื™ื ื•ื“ื™ื™ื ื™ื ื•ืœืขืชื™ื ืžืืžืฅ ื’ืœื•ื™ ืœื”ืฉื™ื’ ืฉืœื™ื˜ื” ื‘ืžืงื•ื ืฉื™ืฉ ื‘ื• ืžื ื”ื™ื’ื•ืช ืžืชื—ืจื” ื‘ืคื•ืขืœ ืื• ื‘ื›ื—. ืจืง ืœืื—ืจ ืžื”ืœื›ื™ื ืืœื”, ื‘ื—ืžืฉ ื”ืฉื ื™ื ื”ืื—ืจื•ื ื•ืช ืœื—ื™ื™ื• ื›ื‘ืจ ื™ื›ื•ืœ ื”ื™ื” ื”ืžื’ื™ื“ ืœื”ื™ื—ืฉื‘ ืœืžื ื”ื™ื’ื” ื”ื”ื’ืžื•ื ื™ ืฉืœ ื”ืชื ื•ืขื” ื”ื—ืกื™ื“ื™ืช.

THE RISE OF THE MAGGID OF MEZERITCH
TO THE HELM OF THE HASIDIC MOVEMENT

by Benjamin Brown (pp. 37โ€“101)

Abstract

There are two competing scholarly approaches to what transpired between the demise of R. Israel Baal Shem Tov, the Besht, in 1760, and the passing of R. Dov Ber, the Maggid of Mezeritch, in 1772. In the first, which may be called the สปold approach,สผ it is argued that with the Beshtโ€™s passing, the Maggid took over the incipient movement that his teacher had founded and turned it into a successful mass movement. The other, which may be called สปthe new approach,สผ contends that the Besht did not found a movement at all, in which case he did not occupy a leadership role that could be passed on to a successor. The Maggid was merely one of those members of the Beshtโ€™s circle who served as spiritual leaders (later titled tzaddikim); he could not have helmed a movement that did not exist in his lifetime.
This article presents a third, middle option. There was no Hasidic movement proper at the time of the Beshtโ€™s death, but there was a circle of singular individuals who considered the Besht their leader and mentor, some of whom were active in the broader community attracting students and winning adherents. This circle possessed a distinct identity born of a common set of beliefs, ideas, and aspirations, even as it lacked any formal organization. The Maggid did not take the Beshtโ€™s place at the head of this circle; he was merely one of its prominent figures. However, after proving himself a figure of authority in several conflicts, especially from 1766 to 1767, he gradually came to be viewed as presiding over an elite within this circle. In the five years before his death, he attained hegemonic leadership of the nascent Hasidic movement. The very fact that an elite band emerged from within the circle, and, especially, that one individual at the top was in charge, serves as one of the main justifications for considering Hasidism a real movement during this period.
This third option is substantiated by my analysis of primary sources as well as secondary reports and stories. The primary sources โ€“ the สปhard dataสผ โ€“ comprise six documents (five letters and one approbation) that feature the Maggidโ€™s signature and others that were written by members of his entourage. Together they shed new light on the Maggidโ€™s activity and standing at the time, and allow us to piece together a full chronological account of the twelve critical years after the Beshtโ€™s demise.
The analysis of these sources reveals a flurry of concurrent and convergent developments within the emergent movement. It was in that period that the Hasidic สปcourtสผ was created; the requirement of loyal adherence (hitkashrut) to a single tzaddik was developed; the first conflict between tzaddikim erupted; Hasidism was first described as a สปsectสผ; and the opposition to  it culminated into official bans. Furthermore, in those formative years the Hasidic สปstructure of powerสผ was shaped: On the one hand, a large group of disciples consolidated around the Maggid, who spread the new Hasidic gospel under the auspices and with the encouragement of their teacher. Even after these disciples had established their own power bases, they recognized that the Maggidโ€™s authority continued to hold sway over them. On the other hand, other students of the Besht also came to accept the Maggidโ€™s authority. During all this, the Maggid acted with determination, assertiveness, and even some force. He dispatched disciples to spread Hasidism, knowing full well that they might become lightning rods in the process. He imposed his own decisions in disputes that properly came under the jurisdiction of local rabbis and religious judges. Occasionally, he would make a bald and bold power grab in the face of existing or potential competition. It was only in the last years of his life that all of these factors combined to grant him recognition as the hegemonic leader of the Hasidic movement.
Alpayim Va'od, 2021
Writing history has never been free from considerations of ideology and values. Discussions of h... more Writing history has never been free from considerations of ideology and values.  Discussions of history are not simply descriptions of the past; rather, they are a compilation of information with an impact on the present and sometimes even on the future. This holds true not only for the composition of history books, but also for the descriptions of formative events of the Jewish past by halakhic authorities. This article will explore how Rabbi Yisrael Meir Kagan, the Hafetz Hayim, (1839โ€“1933), in his work Mishnah Berurah, coped with events of the past. We will analyze four cases dealing with four historical events: the war of the Hasmoneans as discussed in the Laws of Hanukkah; the Bar Kokhba revolt and the fall of Beitar as described in the Laws of Tisha Bโ€™av; the assassination of Gedaliah ben Ahikam as discussed in the Laws of Fast Days; and the decree of Haman as discussed in the Laws of the Fast of Esther.  In Mishneh Torah, Maimonides provides the historical backgrounds of these events. R. Joseph Caro omitted these descriptions from the Shulhan Arukh, and R. Abraham Danzig, with some deviations from the language of Maimonides, re-incorporated them into his popular work Hayei Adam.  The Hafetz Hayim followed the lead of Maimonides and the Hayei Adam. However, a comparison of their respective formulations proves instructive. Maimonides does not hesitate to include descriptions with the potential for delivering โ€œproblematicโ€ educational messages. The Hayei Adam softens these formulations and the Hafetz Hayim consistently prefers to omit problematic elements from his descriptions, emphasizing instead elements which contain more powerful educational messages for his audience.  Hence, educational considerations do not simply apply to the realm of the Hafetz Hayimโ€™s halakhic rulings; they also consistently guide his presentation of the non-halakhic elements in his work.


ื›ืชื™ื‘ืช ื”ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื” ืžืขื•ืœื ืœื ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ื ืงื™ื™ื” ืžืฉื™ืงื•ืœื™ื ืื™ื“ื™ืื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื™ื ื•ืขืจื›ื™ื™ื. ื”ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื” ืœื ื ื“ื•ื ื” ื›ืชื™ืื•ืจ ืฉืœ ื”ืขื‘ืจ ื’ืจื™ื“ื, ืืœื ื›ืื•ืกืฃ ืชื›ื ื™ื ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื”ื ื”ืฉืคืขื” ืขืœ ื”ื—ื™ื™ื ื‘ื”ื•ื•ื” ื•ืื•ืœื™ ื’ื ื‘ืขืชื™ื“. ืžืืคื™ื™ืŸ ื–ื” ื ื›ื•ืŸ ืœื ืจืง ืœื›ืชื™ื‘ืช ืกืคืจื™ ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื”, ืืœื ื’ื ืœืื•ืคืŸ ืฉื‘ื• ืžืชืืจื™ื ืคื•ืกืงื™ ื”ื”ืœื›ื” ืžืื•ืจืขื•ืช ืžื›ื•ื ื ื™ื ื‘ืขื‘ืจ ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™. ื”ืžืืžืจ ืžื‘ืงืฉ ืœืจืื•ืช ื›ื™ืฆื“ ื”ืชืžื•ื“ื“ ืขื ืžืื•ืจืขื•ืช ืืœื” ืจ' ื™ืฉืจืืœ ืžืื™ืจ ื”ื›ื”ืŸ, ื”ื—ืคืฅ ื—ื™ื™ื (1933-1839), ื‘ืกืคืจื• ืžืฉื ื” ื‘ืจื•ืจื”. ื ื‘ื—ื ื™ื ื‘ื• ืืจื‘ืขื” ืžืงื•ืจื•ืช ื”ืขื•ืกืงื™ื ื‘ืืจื‘ืขื” ืžืื•ืจืขื•ืช: ืžืœื—ืžืช ื”ื—ืฉืžื•ื ืื™ื, ื›ืคื™ ืฉื”ื™ื ื ื–ื›ืจืช ื‘ื”ืœื›ื•ืช ื—ื ื•ื›ื”; ืžืจื“ ื‘ืจ ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื ื•ื—ื•ืจื‘ืŸ ื‘ื™ืชืจ, ื›ืคื™ ืฉื”ื•ื ื ื–ื›ืจ ื‘ื”ืœื›ื•ืช ืชืฉืขื” ื‘ืื‘; ืจืฆื— ื’ื“ืœื™ื”ื• ื‘ืŸ ืื—ื™ืงื ื›ืคื™ ืฉื”ื•ื ื ื–ื›ืจ ื‘ื”ืœื›ื•ืช ืชืขื ื™ื•ืช; ื•ื’ื–ื™ืจืช ื”ืžืŸ, ื›ืคื™ ืฉื”ื™ื ื ื–ื›ืจืช ื‘ื”ืœื›ื•ืช ืชืขื ื™ืช ืืกืชืจ. ื”ืจืžื‘"ื ื›ืชื‘ ื‘ืžืฉื ื” ืชื•ืจื” ืืช ืจืงืขื ื”ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ ืฉืœ ื”ืžืื•ืจืขื•ืช ื”ืœืœื•, ืจ' ื™ื•ืกืฃ ืงืืจื• ื”ืฉืžื™ื˜ื ืžืŸ ื”ืฉื•ืœื—ืŸ ืขืจื•ืš, ื•ืจ' ืื‘ืจื”ื ื“ืื ืฆื™ื’ ืฉื‘ ื•ื”ืขืœื” ืื•ืชื, ื‘ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ื™ื ืื—ื“ื™ื ืžืœืฉื•ื ื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจืžื‘"ื, ื‘ืกืคืจื• ื”ืคื•ืคื•ืœืจื™ 'ื—ื™ื™ ืื“ื'. ื”ื—ืคืฅ ื—ื™ื™ื ื”ื•ืœืš ื‘ืขืงื‘ื•ืช ื”ืจืžื‘"ื ื•ื”'ื—ื™ื™ ืื“ื', ืืš ื”ืฉื•ื•ืื” ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ื ื™ืกื•ื—ื™ื ืžืืœืคืช: ื”ืจืžื‘"ื ืื™ื ื• ืžื”ืกืก ืœืฉืœื‘ ื‘ื“ื‘ืจื™ื• ืชื™ืื•ืจื™ื ืฉืขืœื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ื™ื•ืช 'ื‘ืขื™ื™ืชื™ื™ื' ืžื‘ื—ื™ื ืช ื”ืžืกืจ ื”ื—ื™ื ื•ื›ื™ ืฉืœื”ื, ื”'ื—ื™ื™ ืื“ื' ืžืจื›ืš ืื•ืชื ืžืขื˜ ื•ืื™ืœื• ื”ื—ืคืฅ ื—ื™ื™ื ืžืขื“ื™ืฃ ื“ืจืš ืงื‘ืข ืœื”ืฉืžื™ื˜ ืžืŸ ื”ืชื™ืื•ืจื™ื ื”ืœืœื• ืืช ื”ืžืจื›ื™ื‘ื™ื ื”'ื‘ืขื™ื™ืชื™ื' ื•ืœื”ื“ื’ื™ืฉ ืื—ืจื™ื, ืฉื™ืฉ ื‘ื”ื ืžืกืจ ื—ื™ื ื•ื›ื™ ื—ื–ืง ื™ื•ืชืจ ืขื‘ื•ืจ ืงื”ืœ ืงื•ืจืื™ื•. ื”ืฉื™ืงื•ืœ ื”ื—ื™ื ื•ื›ื™ ืžืฉืคื™ืข ืืฆืœื• ืืคื•ื ืœื ืจืง ืขืœ ืื•ืคืŸ ื”ื›ืจืขืช ื”ื”ืœื›ื”, ืืœื ื’ื ืขืœ ืื•ืคืŸ ื ื™ืกื•ื—ื ืฉืœ ื”ื—ืœืงื™ื ื”ืœื-ื”ืœื›ืชื™ื™ื ื‘ื—ื™ื‘ื•ืจื•.
ืฆื™ื•ืŸ / Zion, 2026
ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ืฉื ื™ื ืชืง"ื”โ€“ืชืงืœ"ื– (1745โ€“1777) ืงืจืข ืืช ืงื”ื™ืœืช ืื•ืกื˜ืจื”ื (ะžัั‚ั€ะพฬะณ, Ostrรณg) ืคื•ืœืžื•ืก ืคื ื™ืžื™ ืžืจ. ื”ืฉืœื‘ ื”ืจื... more ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ืฉื ื™ื ืชืง"ื”โ€“ืชืงืœ"ื– (1745โ€“1777) ืงืจืข ืืช ืงื”ื™ืœืช ืื•ืกื˜ืจื”ื (ะžัั‚ั€ะพฬะณ, Ostrรณg) ืคื•ืœืžื•ืก ืคื ื™ืžื™ ืžืจ. ื”ืฉืœื‘ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ืคื•ืœืžื•ืก ื–ื” (1765-1745) ื”ื—ืœ ื‘ืžืื‘ืง ืขืœ ื›ืก ื”ืจื‘ื ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืขื™ืจ, ืขื ื”ื“ื—ืชื• ื“ื” ืคืงื˜ื• ืฉืœ ืจื‘ ื”ืขื™ืจ, ืจ' ื“ื•ื“ ื”ื™ื™ืœืคืจื™ืŸ, ืฉื”ื™ื” ืžืชืœืžื™ื“ื™ ื”ื‘ืขืฉ"ื˜. ืœืžืฉืจื” ืžื•ื ื” ืจ' ืžืฉื•ืœื ืืฉื›ื ื–ื™, ืื—ื™ื• ื”ืฆืขื™ืจ ืฉืœ ืจ' ื™ืขืงื‘ ืขืžื“ืŸ. ื‘ืขื™ืจ ื”ืชืคืชื—ื• ืžื—ื ื•ืช ื™ืจื™ื‘ื™ื, ืฉืื—ื“ ืžื”ื ื ืชืžืš ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืคืขื™ืœ ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื”ื‘ืขืฉ"ื˜ ื•ื—ื•ื’ื•. ื›ื—ืœืง ืžืŸ ื”ืžืื‘ืง ื ืขืฉื” ื’ื ื ืกื™ื•ืŸ ืœื”ื˜ื™ืœ ืขืœ ื”ื‘ืขืฉ"ื˜ ื—ืจื, ืืš ืกืคืง ืื ื ืกื™ื•ืŸ ื–ื” ืฆืœื—.
ื”ืฉืœื‘ ื”ืฉื ื™ ืฉืœ ื”ืžืื‘ืง (1777-1765) ื”ืชืงื™ื™ื ืœืื—ืจ ืฉื›ื‘ืจ ื ืคื˜ืจื• ืจื‘ื™ื ืžืžื•ื‘ื™ืœื™ื•. ื‘ืจืืฉ ืžืชื ื’ื“ื™ื• ืฉืœ ืจ' ืžืฉื•ืœื ื ื™ืฆื‘ ื›ืขืช ืจ' ื™ืขืงื‘ ื™ื•ืกืฃ ืžืื•ืกื˜ืจื”ื, ื”ืžื›ื•ื ื” ืจื‘ ื™ื™ื‘"ื™, ืžืชืœืžื™ื“ื™ ื”ืžื’ื™ื“ ืžืžื–ืจื™ื˜ืฉ. ืขืงื‘ ื”ืžืื‘ืงื™ื ื•ื”ื—ื•ื‘ื•ืช ื ืืœืฅ ืจ' ืžืฉื•ืœื ืœืขื–ื•ื‘ ืืช ื”ืขื™ืจ ื•ื ืคื˜ืจ ื‘ื˜ืจื ืฉื‘ ืืœื™ื”. ืืช ื›ืก ื”ืจื‘ื ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืขื™ืจ ืชืคืก ืขืชื” (1777) ืจ' ืžืื™ืจ ืžืจื’ืœื™ื•ืช, ืชืœืžื™ื“-ื—ื‘ืจ ืฉืœ ื”ื‘ืขืฉ"ื˜.
ืคืจืฉื” ื–ื•, ืžืœื‘ื“ ื”ืขื ื™ื™ืŸ ืฉื™ืฉ ื‘ื” ืžืฆื“ ืขืฆืžื”, ืžืื™ืจื” ืžื—ื“ืฉ ืืช ื—ื•ื’ ื”ื‘ืขืฉ"ื˜ ื›ืงื‘ื•ืฆื” ื—ื–ืงื”, ื‘ืขืœืช ืชื•ื•ื™ ื–ื”ื•ืช ืžื•ื’ื“ืจื™ื, ืฉื‘ืฉืขืช ื”ืฆื•ืจืš ื”ืฆืœื™ื—ื” ืœืชืคืงื“ ื›ืงื‘ื•ืฆืช-ืœื—ืฅ ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ืช ืจื‘ืช ืขื•ืฆืžื”, ื•ืฉืœื ื”ื™ืกืกื” ืœื ื”ืœ ืžืื‘ืง ืงื”ื™ืœืชื™ ืฉื ืžืฉืš ืขืฉืจื•ืช ืฉื ื™ื. ืื ืฉื™ื” ื’ื™ืœื• ืกื•ืœื™ื“ืจื™ื•ืช ืคื ื™ืžื™ืช ืื™ืชื ื”, ื›ื•ืฉืจ ืขืžื™ื“ื” ื’ื‘ื•ื” ื•ืืฃ ื™ื›ื•ืœืช ืœื’ื™ื™ืก ืชืžื™ื›ื” ืžืžืงื•ืžื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื™ื, ื•ืœืขื™ืชื™ื ืžืคืชื™ืขื™ื. ื”ื‘ืขืฉ"ื˜ ื”ืชื’ืœื” ื›ืืŸ ืœื ืจืง ื›ืžื ื”ื™ื’ื• ืฉืœ ื—ื•ื’ ื–ื”, ืืœื ืืฃ ื›ืžื™ ื”ืขืžื™ื“ ื“ื’ื ื—ื“ืฉ ืฉืœ ืžื ื”ื™ื’ื•ืช ื•ื›ืžื™ ืฉื ืชืคืก ื›ืกื™ื›ื•ืŸ ืžืฆื“ ื”ื”ื ื”ื’ื” ื”ืจื‘ื ื™ืช ื•ืืœื™ื˜ืช ืชืœืžื™ื“ื™ ื”ื—ื›ืžื™ื. ื”ื•ื ืคืขืœ ืœื ืจืง ื›'ื‘ืขืœ ืฉื' ืืœื ื›ื‘ืขืœ ื‘ืฉื•ืจื” ื—ื“ืฉื” ื‘ืขื‘ื•ื“ืช ื”'. ืืฃ ืื ื—ื•ื’ ื”ื‘ืขืฉ"ื˜ ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืœื ื”ื™ื” ื’ื“ื•ืœ ื“ื™ื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ื™ืงืจื ืชื ื•ืขื”, ื“ื•ืžื” ื›ื™ ืžืฉืงื™ืฃ ื—ื“ ืขื™ืŸ ืฉืขืงื‘ ืื—ืจ ืคื•ืœืžื•ืก ืื•ืกื˜ืจื”ื ืžืงืจื•ื‘ ื™ื›ื•ืœ ื”ื™ื” ืœื”ืขืœื•ืช ื‘ื“ืขืชื• ืืช ื”ืืคืฉืจื•ืช ืฉื”ื—ื•ื’ ื”ื—ื–ืง ื”ื–ื” ื™ื”ืคื•ืš ืœืชื ื•ืขื” ื›ื‘ืจ ื‘ืขืชื™ื“ ื”ืงืจื•ื‘.


THE OSTROH CONFLICT AND THE CIRCLE OF THE BAโ€™AL SHEM TOV: A โ€œDRESS REHEARSALโ€ OF THE CONFLICT BETWEEN HASIDIM AND MISNAGDIM?
by Benjamin Brown
Between 1745 and 1777, the Jewish community of Ostroh (Ostrรณg, ะžัั‚ั€ะพฬะณ) was riven by a bitter, protracted conflict that had two major phases.
The first phase, spanning two decades (1745โ€“1765), was sparked by a struggle over the post of town rabbi. The chief rabbi, R. David Heilperin, a disciple of R. Israel Baโ€™al Shem Tov (the Besht), was de facto deposed and R. Meshullam Ashkenazi, the younger brother of R. Jacob Emden, was appointed in his stead. Warring camps developed, one of which was actively reinforced by the Besht and his circle. In the midst of the strife, there was even an attempt, of unclear success, to excommunicate the Besht.
The second phase played out between 1765 and 1777, after leaders on both sides had died. R. Meshullamโ€™s chief antagonist was now R. Jacob Joseph of Ostroh, a disciple of R. Dov Ber, the Maggid of Mezeritch. Due to the conflict and his own debts, R. Meshullam was eventually forced out of the city, never to return. A few months after His death in January 1777, R. Meir Margaliot, a familiar personality and a disciple of the Besht, was nominated for the post.
This episode, as interesting as it is in its own right, sheds new light on the Beshtโ€™s circle and on the Besht himself. Based on the historical analysis of the conflict, the Beshtโ€™s circle turns out to have been a formidable group with a well-marked identity. When necessary, its members could apply intense political pressure and were prepared to wage a lengthy war to look out for their own. They exhibited shoulder-to-shoulder solidarity, exceptional stamina, and a knack for garnering support from diverse and sometimes unexpected quarters. The Besht not only led this circle but established a new model of leadership; consequently, he was considered a menace by the rabbinic leadership and scholarly elite. He was clearly no mere wonderworker (baโ€™al shem) but the preacher of a new way of serving God. Even if the Beshtโ€™s circle was not large enough to be called a movement during this contentious period, a perceptive observer closely following the Ostroh struggle might have been able to predict that it would not be long before this powerful circle picked up enough steam and adherents to become one.
ืฉื•ืื” ืžืžืจื—ืง ืชื‘ื•ื, 2009
'ืืœ ื ื ื ืขื‘ื•ืจ ืœื’ื“ื•ืœื•ืช ืžืžื ื•": ื”ืชื ื’ื“ื•ืชื• ืฉืœ ื”ื—ื–ื•ืŸ ืื™ืฉ ืœื”ื ืฆื—ืช ื”ืฉื•ืื” ื•ืžื ื™ืขื™ื”"'
ืื•ืจืชื•ื“ื•ืงืกื™ื” ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช - ื”ื™ื‘ื˜ื™ื ื—ื“ืฉื™ื, 2006
'ื”ืžื ื”ื’ ื‘ืคืกื™ืงื” ื”ืื•ืจืชื•ื“ื•ืงืกื™ืช: ื”ื—ื–ื•ืŸ ืื™ืฉ ื›ืžืงืจื” ืžื‘ื—ืŸ',
Akdamot 4 (1998), pp. 31-67, 1998
'ืืžื•ื ื” ื‘ืจืืฉ ื•ืืžื•ื ื” ื‘ืกื•ืฃ - ืงื•ื™ื ืœืชืคื™ืกืช ื”ืืžื•ื ื” ืฉืœ ืฉืœื•ืฉื” ื”ื•ื’ื™ื ื—ืจื“ื™ื™ื ื‘ืžืื” ื”-20'

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